PLANS 
AND 

METHODS 
FOR THE 
SCHOOLROOM 





'^hl 




Gassi B < -^ '^- ^ 
Book * V G 



r 



PLANS 



AND 



METHODS 



FOR THE 



SCHOOL-ROOM 



EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

BOSTON 
NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 






Copyrighted 
By educational PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1905. 



i lol ?b 



INDE 



Page 

LESSONS ON COMMON OBJECTS 7 

AIDS TO SUCCESSFUL ORAL TEACHING . . 8 

Intelligent Sketch Writing ... . . 8 

GENERAL EXERCISES .9 

LIFE UPON THE EARTH 10 

PERSONAL DESCRIPTION 10 

THE CAT (lUusiTatert) 11 

The Picture Examineil 11 

Habits 13 

The Cat Indoors V2 

Useful Lessons 12 

THE BEAR ^Illustrated) 12 

Description 12 

Habits and Food, and Locality where Found . . 12 

Capture and Uses 13 

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DOG AND THE CAT 13 

The Dog 13 

The Cat 13 

The Comparison 13 

COWS (Illustraied) 14 

Where Found 14 

Size 14 

Covering 14 

Body 14 

Legs 14 

Head 14 

Food 14 

Character 14 

Uses 14 

Questions 14 

THE HORSE {Illustrated) IB 

Description K; 

Habits, Food, etc IB 

Use when Dead IB 

Revision 16 

THK RABBIT (Itlustrateil) 18 

General Description 18 

Wild Rabbits IS 

Forms and Parts of Rabbit 18 

Questions lit 

THE FOX 20 

General Description 20 

Head 20 

Body 20 

Legs 20 

Where and How Fox Lives . . . . . . 20 

Kinds of Foxes and Uses Made of Them ... 20 

Questions 20 

Anecdote 20 



Page 

THE LEOPARD 21 

Introduction 21 

Where Found 21 

Size 21 

Covering 21 

Shape 21 

Head 21 

Legs 21 

Tail 21 

Home 21 

Food 21 

Movements 21 

Character 21 

Methods of Capture 21 

Questions 21 

THE riQER iinusirated) 22 

THE MONKEY {lUuslrated) 24 

General Description 24 

Where and How Monkeys Live 25 

Lemur .... 25 

Kinds of Monkeys . 25 

Their Food .... 25 

Questions .... 25 

THE ELEPHANT (Illustrated) . . ... 26 

Blackboard Plan . , 26 

Description . . 28 

Trunk .27 

Uses of Trunk .28 

Age 2',» 

Kind of Animal 29 

Kinds of Elephant , . . 29 

Where Found 2',) 

Character of Elephants 29 

Use of Elephants 2'J 

Hunting the Elephant 30 

Suggestions 30 

SWIMMING BIRDS {Illustrated) 31 

Introduction 31 

Where Found 31 

Methods 31 

Characteristics of Swimming Birds .... 31 

Kinds of Swimming Birds 31 

Swans 31 

Geese 31 

Ducks 31 

Petrel and Seagull 31 

Questions 32 

DOMESTIC FOWLS (Illustrated) 32 

Introduction .32 

Uses 32 

Method 32 

3 



ini)p:x. 



Description . 
Method . 
llablta — Houses 
Food 
Character 
Queatlons 



BIRDS (Illustrated) 

Skeleton 

How Birds Percli 

Special Uses and Modifications in Structure 

Legs and Feet of Birds 

I. Seizers— Birds of Prey 

Perchers 

Climbers 

Scratchers 

Runners 

Waders: Stilt-Walkers . 

Swimmers 



I'AUE 

3 J 
S3 
33 
33 
33 
33 

34 
3« 
34 

36 



II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 



THE EAGLE 

General Appearance 
Where and How the Eagle Lives 
How Eagle Gets Its Food 
Kinds of Eagles .... 

FISHES {Illustrated) .... 
Introduction .... 
How do Fishes Move 
Covering of Fishes . 
How They Breathe . 
How They Feed .... 
Specimen Fish .... 



CLAM ANO OYSTER (Illustrated) 
The Shell— Valves . 

Ligament 

Lines of Growth 
Muscle— Scars— Pallial Line . 
Material of Shell 
The Animal— Mantle 
Adductor Muscles— Siphon . 

■Gills 

Body— "Foot" .... 

The Oyster 

Structure 

Kinds of Mullusks 

Where Found .... 

ITses 

Blackboard Outlines 

LOBSTER AND CKAB (Illustrateil) 

Lobster 

Head— Thorax .... 

Abdomen 

Internal Structure . 
Where Found .... 

Habits 

Kinds of Lobster 

THE CRAB (Illustrated) 

Where Found .... 
Habits of Crabs .... 
Kinds of Crabs .... 

Uses 

How Captured .... 
Suggestions and Notes 

INSECTS (Illustrated) .... 
Why so Called .... 
Chief Organs .... 



.la 



Segments and .lolnts 

The Head 

Chest 

Body 

Kinds of Insects .... 
Benefits Derived from Insects 
Injuries Caused by Insects 
Insect and Spider (A Comparison) 



Page 
54 
55 
55 

55 
.55 
56 
56 
50 



SILK (Illustrated) 

Blackboard Plan 



57 
57 



PLANT LIFE (Illustrated) BO 

Blackboard Plan . 60 

Hints 60 

Matter to be Taught 61 

Trees, Shrubs, Herbs 61 

Special Study of Herbs 61 

Kinds of Grasses 62 

Special Study of Meadow Grasses .... 62 

Use of Meadow Grasses 63 

INDIAN CORN 63 

THE APPLE 65 



Use of Apple 

THE POTATO . . . . 

SUGAR 

Its Uses . . . . 

Properties and Qualities 
Where We Get Sugar 
Picture Examined 
The Stem . . . . 



65 
66 

68 
68 
63 
69 
6!) 
69 



Leaves 69 

Flowers 69 

How Sugar is Made 69 



SPICES (Illustrated) 

Blackboard Plan 

What They Are 

Spices Obtained from What Part of Plant 

Where Found 

Uses 

Most Important 

GINGER 

Description 

Where Found 

Preparation for Market 

Adulterations 

Kinds of Ginger 

How to Tell Good Ginger . . . . 

CINNAMON (Illustrated) 

Description 

Where Found 

Preparation 

Kinds of Cinnamon 



CASSIA .... 
Where Foun<l 
How to Distinguish 



70 

70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 

70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 
71 

71 
71 

71 

71 
71 

71 

71 



CLOVES 

Description . 
Where Found 
Prejiaration for Market 
A Story .... 



PEPPER (Illustrated) 
Description . 
Where Found 



INDEX. 



Page 

Preparation for Market 'i'i 

Kinds of Pepper "3 

CAYENNE PEPPER 73 

Description "3 

Where Found 74 

Preparations 74 

Adulterations 74 

PIMENTO 74 

Description 74 

Where Found 74 

NUTMEG AND MACE 74 

Description 74 

Where Found 74 

Preparation for Market 74 

How to Tell Good Nutmegs 74 

Suggestions 74 

ONION, TURNIP AND CARROT 75 

Comparison 75 

TOPICAL OUTLINE FOR GEOGRAPHICAL LESSON 76 

Employment for Geography Class .... 76 

OUTLINES FOR PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ... 77 

DEVICES IN GEOGRAPHY 78 

GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 79 

A TALK ABOUT OUE EARTH 80 

GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE 81 

WIND 82 



Page 

VAPOR 84 

CLOUDS 85 

RAIN 87 

SNOW 89 

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING 93 

ICE {Illustrated) 9* 

FRIDAY AFTERNOON QUESTIONS 96 

MAP DRAWING I Illustrated) 97 

Map of School Grounds 97 

Importance of the Scale 97 

Which Side of Map Shall be North .... 97 

A Still Larger Map 97 

Eiercise 98 

A Map of a Town 93 

A Map of Township 99 

The Map of a State M 

THE GEOGRAPHY OF A STATE 100 

(A Blackboard Outline) 100 

HINTS ON PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY 102 

STATE NICKNAMES 103 

EXERCISES IN DIRECTION 103 

QUESTIONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY . 103 

CANALS 103 

A BLACKBOARD PLAN 103 

A SCHOOL LOG BOOK 103 



-*\:r;.'WKs<-S2?J.-f.^. 





*^' 



*^=,irf«# 




MORNING GREETINC, 



PLANS 



AND 



METHODS 

FOR THE 

SCHOOL-ROOM 



LESSONS ON COMMON OBJECTS. 




I BJECT-LESSONS are giveu chiefly to 
cultivate in children the habit of accur- 
ate observation. The importance of this 
habit can scarcely be overrated, since 
all reasoning and work must be based 
on fact, or what we suppose to be fact. 
Few errors arise from wilfulness, compared 
with those that arise from want of care and exact- 
ness in noticing things quite easily noticeable. 

Indirectly, these lessons train to accuracy of 
expression both in language and in drawing ; for 
tongue and hand will lioth feel the influence of the 
truly-informed mind. They should excite a spirit 
of inquiry and experiment, of intelligent interest 
in the production of the object, and sympathy 
with the people concerned in producing it. They 
should form a stepping-stone to the more forijial 
study of science ; or where this fo..'mal study is 
impossible, a substitute for it. 



A beginner generally attempts to do too much 
iu one lesson, and so lays on her pupils a burden 
of mere words : or she wastes time in noticing 
qualities that are unimportant, while the charac- 
teristic features or qualities of the object are 
passed lightly over. She not unfrequently takes 
for her subject some (ni-common thing of which 
but few specimens can be obtained, and keeps it 
in her own hand or on the table ; wliereas she 
should, if possible, furnish every child with a 
specimen, tliat each may learn to examine and 
describe for herself ; or, failing this, should choose 
some object large enough to be easily seen by 
every child in the class. 

It is obviously possible to treat animals as com- 
mon objects and to observe their appearance, 
parts, covering, and so on, without regard to their 
peculiarities or habits as living things. Where 
the teacher desires to treat an animal in this way, 

7 



MODERN jMETH( )DS. 



a bold-drawn diagram is required, showing the 
parts distinctly- Lessons on Form, Color, and 
other properties of objects, may also fairly be 



included in this series : in these, a number of 
different olijects will lie required for one lesson, as 
means of comparison and illustration. 



— F. A. Steele. 



AIDS TO SUCCESSFUL ORAL TEACHING. 



Intelligent Sketch Writing. — Assuming 
that good and suitable matter has lieen collected, 
it sliould be converted into a sketch. 

First Rule. — Consider the mentiil ritpacUy luid 
pr<ihi(h!e, attainments of the children. — Having clone this, 
choose those jmrts of the subject which are fitted for 
both, and take as much of tlie subject as can be tanirht 
in the time aUotted to the lesson. 

A disregard of this rule lies at tlie root, of niauy 
failures both in sketch writing and in lesson giving. 

Second Rule. — Determine in yonr own mitid the 
order ill. irhirh the sid>ject shall be tanght. — In other words, 
make sure that your starting point is the right one. 

It may be laid down as a general principle that 
the proper starting point of every lesson given to 
young children is that part of the subject which is 
nearest the experience of the child. Thus in les- 
sons on " Common Things " the use of the object 
is nearer the child's experience than its qualities, 
and the qualities nearer than its maniifacture and 
commercial value. This then shonhl be the teach- 
ing order of such subjects. 

Again, in lessons on "Natural History" the 
parts and habits of the animals are matters which 
can be and are observed by children, while the 
life history of the creature and its place in nature 
lie beyond the range of their experience. Here 
acain we see the proper teaching order of all such 
subjects. 

Violation of the rule . — We have before us a number 
of sketches on " Common Things" written by students 
in a Training School, in which it is proposed to com- 
mence the lesson with the nature of the object and the 
locality in which it is found : then the qualities and 
uses of the object are considered. 

We have also on our study-table a volume of 



yiiles of Lessons for Pr'initri/ Tceiehers, in which 
out of fifty lessons given, oae-half are constructed 
on the aliove plan. In lioth cases the starting- 
point is the unknown and distant, and the goal to 
be reached is the known and present. Wliereas 
the true teaching order should be the very reverse 
of this, or, " from tlie I'tioim to the nnknotmi." 

Third Rule. — Determine v-hat is to be the special 
point or j)oints of the lesson, and state the same at the head 
of the sketch. — In preparing a lesson teachers should 
not be concerned with what can be said about the strb- 
ject in hand, but with what of the sidiject is most suited 
to children's minds and acquirements, and what they can 
receive and digest in the time allotted for the lesson. 
A disregard of this is the cause of many mistakes made 
l)y young teachers. .\n example or two taken from 
sketches sent in to the writer for criticism will make 
this point clear. 

Violations of this rule: 

Subject. — Silk. Age of children — 6 years. 
Time at the teacher's disposal — 30 minutes. 

Points proposed to lie taken up : 1 . Nature of 
the object. 2. From what obtained. 3. History 
of the silk- worm moth. Eggs — Liixa — ^ cocoon — 
chrysalis — motii. -i. Home of the silkworm. 
5. Use of silk. 6. Preparation of the raw 
silk. 7. Manufacture of silken fabiics. 

Passing over, for the present at least, the defec- 
tive arrangement of the lesson, we may point out 
that the ground covered is far too wide for the 
children for whom the lesson is intended, and the 
matter is far more than could Ije given iu half aD 
hour. 

A second example may be added : 



IXFORMATIOX LESSONS. 



Subject, — Hive Bees. Age of children — TjA 
years. Time allowed — 25 minutes. 

Points to he irorked out : 1. Time of day in wliieli 
bees work. '1. Instinct bj* which bees find (a) 
the honey ih) their way back to their hives. 

3. Means by which bees extract the nectar from 
the flowers and bring it to the home of tiie bees. 

4. Hive liees — kinds in each hive. .^i. Work of each 
kind. il. ;\Ioral lessons enforceil : (a) industry, 
(li) order, (c) forethought. 

It does not require much educational acumen to 
see that if such a lesson were given it nuist of 
necessity be a failure. In the first place, it would 
be quite impossible to go through all the iioints 
named iu the time allotted for the lesson : and in 
the second place, the starting-point, the Jnstincl, 
is altogether beyond such young children. Yet 
many such lessons are attempted, and as a matter 
of course as many failures occui-. 

Fourth Rule- — Tah; cwc tlmttke puintsof thclcssmi 
fiMiiw ciii-li itthvr in tludr ti'cichin;/ arilrr. — The informa- 
tion ■svliich lias been collected will naturally l)t placed 
in tlie teacher's mind in the order in which it has been 
acquired, but this order may not be the one in 
■which it should be imparted to the children. 

Teachers must therefore analyze the subject in 
hand, and commence with that which is simple and 
elementary, and so arrange their points that they 
may jiroceed by a series of well-graduated steps 
to that which is more ditlicult or complex in its 
character. When this is done the ideas presented 
will be received in their right order, their suitable 



connection felt, ami thi' whole will I)e adjusted 
satisfactorily in the mind 

Vii>hitiun of this )■/(/(.— The effect of disregar(lin.<» 
this rule is sadly evident in many of the sketches i)re- 
pared Ijy younj;- students. We ,uive an example or two 
which lately came under our notice. 

.\. Lcxaan i,ii Cixd t(i (MMren ci'jht year.'i of arje. 
Order proposed : 1. The formation of coal. 2. Qu.alities. 
3. The occurrence of coal. 4. Means of obtainiui; 
coal. 

Here, it will be observed, the teacher proposes 
to start with the most ditlicult part of the subject, 
— a part, too, quite unfitted for young children 
because it lies beyond the range of observation or 
experiment, and leads to the region of specula- 
tion. 

The more lifting order would have been: 1. 
Tses to which coal is put. 2. equalities which 
render it nsefid. 3. Where coal is found and how- 
obtained. For elder children to these may be 
added: 4. The details of coal-mining. ,'». Com- 
mercial value. And lastly, The formation of 
coal. 

B. ic.woji on sifl' to childrcH si'x yi'fir.i of aijo. Order 
proposed: 1. Nature of ;;ilk. L'. How obtained. 3. 
Clianiies which the silk-worm moth undergoes. 4. Silk- 
producing countru's. :,. Uses of silk. C. Manufac- 
ture of silken goods. 

A better order would be : 1 . Qualities of silk. 
2. Uses to which it is put. 3. From what silk is 
obtained. And for children somewhat older, 4. 
How silk is prejiared foi' use. 

— .r. IlASSELI,. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 

Let the pupil write or tell lists of articles found for 1 ■■ chink in " and to direct (he talk along certain lines. 



sale in groceries. Ha\-e this neatlj- written on tlu^ 
board iu full sight of the pupils, as early in the week 
as Wednesday Have it understood that on Friday 
afternoon, with the maps before the school, and 
with the books of reference near by, time will be spent 
iu talking about these various things. From what 
countries thej' come, how they arc produced, for what 



The tea, coffee, spices, dates, olives, Hour, sugar, etc., 
will bring out many interesting ideas. It will assist this 
exercise, if as in the Dowagiac schools, a large map of 
the United States, or of tlie world, lie outlined on a 
Ijhink floor space. Move off the; teacher's desk and 
make the map on the rostrum. On this map let the 



are they used, etc. Let all who can, find pictures to i various articles be piled as nearly in the locality of their 
illustrate any of these points. The teacher needs to j growth as possible. Control the talk and make of it alJ 
have a little supply of general knowledge, in order to ' a language lesson. — Michigan JMotloriitor. 



1(1 



iSIOlJEKN .MKTIIODS. 



LIFE UPON THE EARTH- 



rLfSHOIls fnr till' Hull mil si 

MATTER TO BE TAUGHT. 
1. 




"<S>i1l) ^'^^'y '^'''' <"il''''' pliuits ami auinials. 
Plants cannot feel and cannot move if 
Y^ thev want to. jVninials can feel and 

can move because tliey want to. 
II. 

Plants need snnliuiil, wanntli and moisture ; 
animals feed on plants and on other animals. 

III. 

Plants and animals are useful to man for food, 
shelter and clothing. 

IV. 

After these things are taught, take up, one 
after another, the most important plants and 
animals of the town in which the children live. 

SuctiKSTioN.s. — For several weeks before the lessons 
are siven, the children shonld have the care of some 
plants in pots in the window or in beds in the yard. To 
lead Ihcni to see that plants jjrow, Ijring into the class 
the day of the lesson a youns plant like one of those of 
wliich they have had the care. Make them sec that 
animals grow also, and that stones do not. To show 
the class that animals feel, call a child to yon, and hav- 
ing m.adc him shnt his cycs.tonch him. Require him to 
tell what yon did and ho^^' he knows. Have him walk 
across the room to show him he can move when he 
wants to. Now liy qviestions upon ditt'eront objects 
make these points marked I. nnder matter to be taught. 



15y referring to tluir experiiaice, yon can easily teach 
No. II. to the children. 

Tlie following may suggest ivays of fixing in the 
minds of the children what they have learned : 

((. Ocoasionallv place upon your table different 
objects and have the childi-en classify tliem hj 
writing the nanii's of the animal substances after 
the word animal, the names of the vegetable sub- 
stances after the word plant, and the names of tiie 
mineral substances after the word mineral. 

In a few days quite diftieult lessons may be 
given tlie class, something like the following : — - 
Place upon your talile a piece of leather, a pair of 
kid gloves, a glass of water, some bread, some 
liutter, a piece of wood, and empty glass bottle (to 
make tlie children tell what tiie air in it is) . f )a 
their slates will aiipear the I'oUowiug, Animal,^ 
leather, kid, butter; Plant. — bread, wood; Min- 
eral, — water, air. Be sure to make the children 
understand that ceasing to grow does not change a 
vegetable substance to a mineral. 

h. Have them name some of the things they 
had for dinner and tell what were animal, vege- 
talile, and what were mineral substances. 

c. Allow them sometimes to play for a few 
minutes, a little game in whicli some child thinks 
of an animal, a plant or a mineral and the others 
guess what he has in his mind. 

Other lessons witholjjects will teach them that plants 
are useful to man, for food, for shelter, and for cloth- 
ing;. They can then study one after another the most 
important plants of the region and their uses to man. 

— Elvira Carvek. 



PERSONAL DESCRIPTION 

meilinm ; body ■ 
lent. 

1'. ('OMCI.KXIOX, 



If this suggestion could be carrii'd out in the spirit 
of the Golden Kule, it migiit be useful as a compo- 
sition exercise. 

Teachers will require each pupil to write about some 
other mcnd)er of the class. Then let each description 
be read, omitting the name, and allow the class to guess 
the name from the description. 

Outline. — l- Genkual. Age, height — tall, short, or 



stout, slender, thin, .spare, corpu- 



Dark, brunette, blonde, light, fair; 
color of eyes, hair, cheeks, etc. 

;i. Features. Forehead — high or low, etc. ; nose 
large, small, Roman, Grecian ; eyes — large, small, dull 
expressive; mouth, lips, teeth, ears, etc. 

t. DuE.ss. Material, color, style, etc. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



11 



NOTES OF l./iSSOlf ON 

THE CAT. 



General Pui'pose. — The subjects selected should be tliose 
which the chihl has frequent opportunities for observinj^. 
These will form tlie preparation for lessons on the less 
known examples of animal life. Pictures ami toy models 
must necessarily take the place of the objects. The method 
of eacli lesson should, therefore, consist chiefly in a carelul 
use of the picture; the teacher should draw out the facts 
about the form and habits which the children have already 
observed; correcting and extending their oljservations, 
leading tliem to notice the simpler structural adaptations. 
Black-board ilrawings should be freely used. 

I. — The Picture Examined, 

1. Teacher poiiitiug to a picture of a cat. 
What i.9 this picture? What is pussy doing? 
What IS she looking at? etc. 

2. What part of the cat am I pointing to? 
The hmd. 

And now? 

The hack : the body. 

And now? 

The legs." 

a. Let us look at the hkad: what Is its shape? I 
will ilraw the shape ou the blackboard, leaving out 
the ears : what sliape is it? 
Hound. 

Now let me see if you can name all the parts of the 
heart? (The children are caused to name and point out 
the earn, eyes, no^c and month) 

h. How many KAHS haspiissy? How many have you? 
On which part of your head are the ears placed? Look 

at tlie cat's ears : are tliey 
in the same place as yours? 
Where are your ears? 

At the sides o/ the 
heiid. 
AVhere are the cat's? 

Xcnrhj on the top — 
hif/her up. 
Yes, pussy's cars look 
*""*■ '■ like little horns on the top 

of her head. What sh(Q)e are they? (Teacher draws 
outline of child's ear and the cat's on the blackboard. 
Pis. l.) When the cat hears a little noise, what does she 
do -with her ears? Which way does she turn them? Can 
you move your ears What do you do instead? 
0. The EYE is next taken, and tlie cliildren are led to 





observe itfi position, skii/n- and ludor. Look at my eyet 
what do you see in the middle? 

.1 h/rick spot. 
Wliat shape is it? 

T^onnd. 
Look at llie picture ; 
wliat shape is the black 
part of the cat's eye? Who 
Fig. i. lias seen tlie cat's eye 

at night? What shape is 
it tlien? (Tlie teaelier draws on the blackljoard the eye 
at it appears at dayliglit and at niglit. Fig. 2.) How is it 
tlie cat's eye looks so largo and black at nigiit? I will 
sliow you. What do ^ve do to the window ■\\heu the 
light shines upon ns? 

Tt'c pnil down the blind. 
Why? What do we do when the sun is gone? (The 
teacher then explains that the cat's eye has a blind 
wliich falls down during the strong light of the day, 
and draws back at night when there is little light.) 

d. The MOUTH, with its sharp, pointed teeth, and long, 
roU(jh toni/ne; and the vihisl-ers or feelers are noticed in 
order, and the uses of each part to tlie cat are carefully 
explained. 

c. How many fekt lias the cat? What do we call 

tlie two at the front? 
j\nd the two behind? 
.Are they shaped like 
our feet? Let us see. 
I will draw the shape 
of our feet and the cat's 
upon the blackboard. 
Which is the lone/ foot? 
Which is tlie rotinti 
F"--'- foot? What shape 

wonkl a cat's foot make on the wet ground? What 
shape, then, is its foot? How many toes have you? 
Now count how many toes pussy has on her front 
foot. See Fig. .'f. 
Five. 

How many on lier 1)ack foot? 
Fonr. 

Wliat have you at the ends of your fingers and toes? 
What has the cat instead of nails? (The teacher draws 
the shape, of the claw upon the black-board, get itshook- 
like form noticed, and show how the cat can thrust the 
claws out, or draw them in again when not in ase. 




12 



MODERN METHODS. 




■Ku.. 4. 



The soft, clii^lir rdsliiiiiia \\]\^]i^v the fc'ot Mi'i' shown )i\' 
a diagram, ;nifl their iisr cxiihiiiicd. See Fig;. .">.) 

/'. (If what (■(//»)■ is tlu' 
cat ill thi' pictured Are 
all oats of the saiiu' coh)r? 
Xanu' some of the colors 
of cats. Which of yon 
!i.-ivi' stroked a cat? What 
IS [iiissy covered witli? 
Fur. 
Her fur coat is beauti- 
fully warm: she d<pi's iii>t need clotlies. Wliat is the 
fur made of? If yon lo(]k at Pussy's coat when yon 
get home, yo.ii will see that it is made up of many line 
hairs, all growing very closi'ly together. How does 
her coal look? 

S/thi;/ ; smnttl/i . 
How does sill' ki'ep it so shiny and snif)otU? Let iis 
try to keep ourselves clean and neat, too. 

II.— Habits. 

Most of these the leather uiU ivudily get from 



the chiss ill replv to suitMhle (iiiestioiis. She will 
refer liack to vviiat lias lieeu tauoht about the 
structure to show how the neeils of tlie luiiiual 
have hei'ii jiroviiled for. 

1. The Cat Indoors. — Hie teacher liriu<is 
out the folhiwiiig' points; 

(I. Tile cat is fiDiif nf n Imnsi-, and goes all over it 
smelling and feeling till she knows it well. She 
inari'^ 11-iiliiml ntiisr. How? 
1). She likes to kH in ininii jihn'r.'i ; pnrrx ; /,-cips hfrselj 
rh'dii. (.\ lesson for children.) 

c. Her food ('"(/""/■.< ,' v»(7A' — how does she driuk it? 
Meat : »»/'(•( — how does she catch them? 

2. Till'. Cat oit ok Doors. 
a. Ijikes tci .>,■// ill llif siiii. Why? 

/(. CdIi/iis !iinls. How ? Sh<' ii-iitrhis, crreps, cJimbs, 
sjiriii^/r,. 

III. — Useful Lessons. 

1. What does pussy teach us? 7'o he clean; 
to he qi'i-'t. ; )(> he Jhiiil of home 

2. How kiudlyaud geutly we shoukl treat her' 



NOrE>t OF r.KSSOY Off 



THE BEAR. 



I. Description. — Exhibit pictures of bear, other central countries of Europe; live.s on flesh 
(white, hl,-ick and luown), and let the chiklren and vgctatiles. Disposition — surly, solitary, 
compare tliein. (let answers, :ilso, containing tierce, srro-acious, fond of young. Sleeps during 
further particulais, if possilile, froin those u iio 

have seen li\e liears. l*"i(iiii pictures, etc., learn 
— bear is a ijuadruped ; three kinds; whites 
largest: black, sinallest : heavy liody, thick legs, 
long hair, strong paws witli live toes; five to ten' 
feet long ; teeth like iiieirs. i 

II. Habits and Food, and Locality 
Where Found. — H7//7c fomnl in Arctic regions, 
hence food sucii as fouml tlieic : seals, fish, seaweed ; 
food caught by itself ; walks on ice ; feet covered | 
■with hair (why?) Bhivk in America aud India; 
vegetables and honey ; Broirn in Germauy aud 




/HE HEAR. 



winter, like? (dormouse, squirrel, etc.) Hungry 
and angry in spring; then dangerous. Does not 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



13 



attack man at other times, unless molested. Can 
be tauiiht, if caught young. 

III. Capture and Uses. — Very valuaWe ani- 
mal, so caiitureil. Tracked by dogs ; shot or 
speared. Fur in great request, black the best, 
made into rugs, caps, and clothing. Fat made 



into bear's grease. Hide makes good leather; 
flesh, eaten. 

Method. — Illustrate habits, etc., by stories 
where possible. Danger of hunting ; affection for 
young — mother carrying her cubs before her. 



COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DOG AND THE CAT. 




^I^^N TRODUCTION. — Pictures of dog 
"~^ ^ ^^^ q£ pjjj. gjjQdifi ]r,g clvawn on black- 
lioard. First deal with each separ- 
ately, recalling briefly the chief points 
of structure and of habit. 
The Dog. — Its shape, covering, 
liciul, body, legs, tail. The mouth 
large ; the teeth strong, pointed, straight ; position 
of the eyes ; covering of hair ; strong, stoutish 
legs : the foot, shape. Nnmber and position of 
the hard, horny xails. The many different kinds, 
sizes, form and general appearance of dogs. Its 
young is called a jn'ji- 

II. The Cat. — In a similar way, deal gener- 
ally with the points of its structure and habit ; then 



the form head, liodi/, feijs, tail, and feet. The 
round eyes change in color and even iu shape as 
the light changes. The mouth and its sharp rows 
of teeth ; the feelers or whiskers ; position of eyes 
and ears ; the quickness of its sight and hearing ; 
the covering, soft, smooth, and glossy ; the long, 
easily-bent body ; the strong, (juick-running legs ; 
the soft-padded paw, eacii toe ending with a sharp, 
strong claw, which can be quickly drawn in or 
thrust out ; the long, round tail ; its 3'oung is a 
kitten. 

III. The Comparison. — The chief points 
of comparison should be as far as possible brought 
out by questioning from the children point by 
point. 



THE DOG. 

Budij. — Strong, active, stout. 

Head. — Long, pohited. nose keen of scent, eyes far 
back, can see at a distance. It hunts by sight and smell 
chiefly. Catches its prey in the light only. 

Font. — Roundish, the toe nail hard and horny. It 
catches its prey with its mouth. 

Voice. — Barking, growling. 
Lives in a kennel. 
Often chained up. 
The youny a pup. 

Both clog and cat are tamed and made of use In our 
chiefly on flesh. (Revision.) 



THE CAT. 

Lithe, supple, active. 

Roundish : eyes can see with less light : whiskers, able 
to feel what cannot be seen ; ears and eyes quick of 
hearing and sight. It hunts chiefly by sight and hear- 
ing; can catch its prey in the dark. 

Padded, can run with little or no noise; claws 
sheathed and so kept sharp. It catches its prey with its 
claws. It can climb trees and walls, etc. 

Mewing, purring. 

In the house. 

I,,eft free. 

A kitten. 

homes. When wild they are beasts of prey ; botli feed 



14 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



NOTES OF LESSON OK 



COWS. 



^wJ^NTRODUCn 




JTION. — Show pictures or 

lihick-liourd drawings of cows and 

let children gi\e name. After tliis 

show others of the trilie — zeliii, 

hiiffahi, hlnoii. i/iik anil mii.'ik <iy, and 

S^ tell them that all these animals belong 

to one family and are nnich alike in uses and 

habits, though they live in different parts of the 

world. 

Where Found. — Some animals of the cow 
kind are found in every part of the world. We 
have the <ix and hiijfiihi. The Zf'l>)i lives in Iiidia. 
(liliKi^ and Eii.aliTii Afririi, the ijiik in the iiioun- 
lainous parts of f'oitral ^Isia, and the iiiifsk a.r in 
the extreme north of America. Show these coun- 
tries on a globe or map. 

Size. — All the animals of this family are huge 
in size, except tlie yak and musk-ox. Our own 
oxen reach a very large size, but are siujjassed by 
the liuffaloes. 

Covering. — Most of those animals are covered 
with shoit hair. In our own cows Ihe col(.)r may 
he white, brown, Ijlack, or mixed. Bi'muls and 
liiiffiihiis are dark brown or bhick. with a lot of 
long hair arouuil the head and neck ; tlie zi'Ihi is a 
])ale gray or la-eam color; the iink has long, black 
liair, that on the hump, maue, and tail being nearly 
white ; tiie nivnl: n.v. who lives in cold regions, has 
a hugh mass of wooly hair of a yellowish-brown 
rolor. 

Body. — The bodies of these animals are larce 
and heavy, several species being furnished with 
liiimps. c. ,/., the rj'hii, /lisoii, /ii'if':i/(j n\ii\ i/dk. 

Legs. — (ieuei-ally siieaking, tlie legs are short 
.niid thick, witli cloven hoofs. 

Head. — This is huge, with line, lierce c//,',s, and 
jKirti.f of different shapes, tla^se of the bison and 
buffalo being very formidal)le. The neck is usually 
short and tliick. 



Food. — All tlie animals of the ox tribe eat 

grass and other vegetables, chewing the cud as 
described in the lessons on ■• Rinniiitni.tn." The 
domestic cattle are fed on hay, turnips, carrots, 
etc., in the winter time. 

Character. — Tiiese animals are naturally 
fierce and courageous. When wild they are, 
especially the buffaloes and bisons, very formid- 
able, but when tamed become most useful to man. 

Uses, — As a class these animals stand lirst 
for usefulness. One menilier of the family at 
least is found in nearly eviay country, where its 
uses are much like those of our own species, the 
diunestie cow. Its uses are: — 

To tiiVF, Milk. — Tliis is abundant, rich and 
nourishing. 

To Lauok. — In many iiarts oxen are still used 
to draw the plough or wagon. 

To PiioviDK Fooii. — Its flesh furnishes us with 
one of the most savory and nourishing of our 
animal foods. 

To GivK Horn. — • Which furnishes materi.al for 
making the handles of knives and forks, and many 
other things. 

To (iivE Hide. — Its skin or hide is thick, and 
n:akes most durable leather. 

To FntNisn Gi.uk. — This substance is made 
from its hoofs, ears, and hide parings. 

To (iivE Hair. — This is used to mix with 
plaster for building. 

To FruMsii ANniAi. Charcoal. — Tliis is 
obtained from its bones. 

Questions. — What do we gi-t from oxen? 
Which of tlu' oxen family is most useful? To 
what class do oxen lielong? Audio what tribe? 
How do they rank with other animals iu point of 
usefulness? Tell some anecdotes of a cow? Of 
a buffalo? \\'here does the zebu live? Which is 
Ihe laru'er animal, the bull or the buffalo? 




Dehat-Pnnsan. 



Hi 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



XOTE.<: OF LESSOy 0-V 



THE HORSE. 




5XTR0DUCTIOX.— Rofer to what the 
children see iiiid know of horses as 
seen day by day. In towns and cities 
the great nnmbers seen, drawing carts, 
wagons, carriages, etc. ^Vll are at 
vorlv. They <lifTer in size, and .sfr(_-jiijf/i 
and co?itr. Wliieii ivind of work will need 
the strongest? Why? Whicli neetls the (juick- 
cst? Note the difference lietweeu the stout, 
strong cart-horse, the more slender rarriaye-horse, 
the delicate raco-lwrac. How strong the horse is! 
How fast and long it can rnn. Yet it is iji'iitle, 
and generally quiet. It will not harm a child. 
Ou its feet are iron shoes. Why are they there? 
How are they fastened? Why <lo not the nails 
hurt its foot? 

Description of the Horse. — Show pict- 
ures of horses. Describe and elicit its general 
shape, size, appearance. Tlie large long bod;/, the 
wide rievk, the large long hetuf. Its legs strong 
and firm. The iiorny honj', the mane. Where 
placed. The tall, when left to grow as it will, 
long and Imshy. Sometimes it is cut short. Tlie 
ears pointed and movable. It can hear quickly. 
The ei/es large; placed high. Jt can see a long 
way. The nostrils wide ; it can smell quickly. 
In the month are the teeth and the tonijia'. The 
front teeth are long and sliarp. Between them 
and the back teeth is a large space. Here is 
where the In't is placed. What is it made of, and 
its use. The liack teeth are broad and shar|). 
With the front teeth it eiils its food ; with the 
back it (jrintis it. What is the body covei-ed 
with? T'he hair is siiort, soft, close, of different 
colors. Tiie horse can mi/k, trot, gallop. The 
differences of these ? 

Its voice is called ueighiinj. 

Habits, Food, etc— There are iciM horses 
in some places. These live many together, as 



sheep and cows do. Such a number is called a 
herd. What other animals live ui herds ? What 
is a number of slieep called? In most lands all 
horses are taine. They are kept for the work 
they do. AVhat food do they eat? Gra.ss, ha;/, 
oats, turnips, etr. Wiiat one name may be given 
to these? The horse feeds on> ■ver/etables. Other 



tame animals which 



Other wild animals? 



Name some that feed on llesh, What is the place 
called in which the horse lives? In the stable are 
a n/cA' for liay, a troug/i for corn, a pail for water, 
strain to lie upon. The young horse is a efilt ; 
when very j'oung a foal. Horses are named 
according to the work tliey do. There are cart- 
horses, lAtrriage-horses, race-horses, etc. In all 
times and places men have made use of the horse. 
Think of the many ways in which they are of 
use. In the coniitri/; in ton'n. 

Use When Dead. — The skin is made into 
leather. For this it has to be tanned. The hair 
is used for stuHing eu-^luons, chairs, and sofas. 

The long hair of tlie tail is woven into horsehair 
cloth. Its /((";/■ makes glue. The fat for soap. 
The honcs for knife-handles or burnt for manure. 

Revision. — Let the horse be the subject for 
the next conq)osition exercise, the children, mean- 
while, finding out all they can about horses. 
AYhen practical, they may illustrate their compo- 
sitions with an outline drawing' .of a horse. 
Memory Gems will also be in order. 

— N. s. Edwards. 



A man of kindness to his beast is kind, 
Hut brutal actions show a brutal miud ; 
Remember He who made thee, made the brute; 
Who gave thee speech and reason formed him mute. 
Ill' can't complain, but (jod's all-seeing eye 
IJeliolds ttnj cruelty, and hears Ids cry; 
He was designed thy servant, not thy drudge; 
And know that Ills Creator is thy Judge." 

—Anon. 




PHARAOH'S HORSES. 



Herring. 



18 



MODERN METHODS. 



NOTES OF LESSON OX 

THE RABBIT. 





1;LA(.'K-1>(JAHD drawing of tlii' rabbit 
will lie iiewk'd, or, fveii better, when 
judiciouslv used, a living rabbit may 
be eniiiloyed with advantage for illus- 
ration. 

General Description. — First show 
the ]iict.ure or speeinien, and speak in gen- 
eral terms of the chief points of structure — its 
pretty appearance; its soft, furry covering; tlie 
bright, large eye, long oars ; its gentle timid 
nature, so easily frightened when wild, running off 
to hide itself as one gets near, etc. Then speak 
of vJicrc and Im/r it /in:s. Children often see 
rabbits as ke))!, in their homes or the homes of 
neighbors. These are /dtiii'. Why so kept? 
They are pretty to look al and easily attended to. 
From tliein we may learn something about — 

Wild Rabbits. — C'hildi-en living in the coun- 
try often see them. Where should we look for 
them? Jii Jii'lds iiiitl ironds. Early in the morn- 
ing, or as evening comes on. they may lie seen 
running in the grass, or in I he lields. They are 
bus}' cropping the grass, munching the turnips, 
sometimes getting into tlii' ganlens. ^\■llat they 
seek there. What their food is. The mischief 
they often do by eating the young crops, etc. 



How pretty they look ; how watchful they are ; 
how quick to see, to hear, if we go near, or if any 
noise be made how quickly they scamper off. 
They are all soon out of sight. Where do they 
go? They run into holes in the ground. Des- 
criije how they scrape away the earth with their 
strong feet and sharp nails at the end of the toes. 
The long, underground /";/■/■«;(• ,• a number of these 
winding paths near together make a varren? What, 
then, is a warren? What is a burrow? How is 
the burrow made? Explain that these are dug 
usually in loose, sandy soil, though sometimes 
made in the earthy parts, among rocks and .stones. 

Form and Parts of a Rabbit. — By help 

of picture and specimen describe .s/~e omI gen- 
eral forin. Konnd head ; shortish, round body, 
small upturned tail; the four legs, the hinder 
longer than the two fore legs ; the covering of soft, 
warm, lirownish-gray fur, etc. 

The Hk.ad, round, moving (luickly on the short, 
thick neck ; the ei/es large ; where placed, standing 
well out. Why this is, wdiat it enables the rabbit 
to do ; the hmg ears, how they hang ; their quick 
motion, and reason of this ; the mouth and teeth ; 
show clearly the four front teeth : two above, two 
below, shaped like shaY\) rhisels : their iiiltblijig 
action, how nsed, other animals like them. Bark 
of trees, young wood, turnips, grass, etc, all 
iiibhh'il in the same way. 

Body and Tail. Describe again. Different 
appearance when running, sitting, etc. The cover- 
ing. Difference of color in wild rabbits and many 
tame ones ; the later often irhite. hhirl-, or sjiotted, 
or rich brown color. 

Feet .\mi Leos. .Shape, four toes on each 
foot, ending in the strong nail; use of this in bur- 
rowing. 

The rabbit is timid, caught in traps, or shot ; their 
tlesh is used for food, and the skin for cheap furs, 
etc. Many liiids, and beasts of prey also catc 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



19 



the rabbit and feedou thciii. The quick sight and 
hearing and running, enable the rabbit often to 
escape from danger. 

The hare belongs to the same family as the 
rabbit, and although resembling the latter in many 
points, may be easily distinguished by having a 
longer head and eai-s ; the ears with a black tip, 



and the upper surface of the tail has not that 
brown color found in the rabbit. It does not hide 
in burrows like the rabbit, but trusts to its great 
speed to elude its numerous enemies. 

Questions. — Have we any use for rabbits? 
Why do we keep them sometimes ? Have you ever 
seen one? Is the rabbit a fierce animal? 




RAliUITS AT HOME. 



20 



XATIUAL lIlsroKY. 



NOTKS OF hKSSON' OX 



THE FOX. 




F.XKKAL DKSCUIPTIOX.— l!y aid 

of a iiuod iiictiin', (Irawiug' or stencil 

(lutliiic oil lihiclv-lioai'd, liring clcai'ly 

'^i%^/')S^ "I'l 1 1"' Ui'iic'i'al f|. atari's of structure 

§i^ and aiiiicarance. Its miiiii'; gcuei'al 

^ likeness to tile thiij : sizi-. riilur ; iiiisf 
slidr/icr, and Imsliicr tail than the doii's ; 
litli<\ Kclirc, ^1 rmiij-hiiili! iiij. 

The Head. — Erect, tapering ; ears standing 
straight u|i, pointed ; eyes hright, keen-looking, 
set forward ; mouth <.|ien wide, showing t\ro rows 
of strong, shar]i-|iointe<l t.eetli ; neck, hingish, 
stout, stan<ling straight up from shoulders, so as 
to lift the head well a hove tin- liody. 

The Body. — Long, huge (h'cp chest, giving 
plenty of lir<'atli. so enaliling it to keep on running 
for a long time; covere<l with thick-growing, 
vellowish-lirown. soflish Imii- ov f'ur. The Tail. — 
Straight, tiusliv, tippid witli white. ^lake very clear 
the distinctiveness eil' the luishy tail, soinetinies 
called the lifKsli. 

The Legs. — Stout, strong-looking, feetthick- 
ish ; its foiu- toes, each having a strong claw, not 
sharp as the cat's is. How does the cat keep its 
claws sharp? The fox cannot draw its claws in, 
so they get hlunted by running over the stones and 
earth. 

Where and How the Fox Lives ? — Ask 

if any have seen a. fox, and where? (Iiilitren liv- 
ing in the coiiiitrv may have done .so. They will 
tell where it may he seen. So bring out that the 
fox is a 'riltl II III mill. It lives in woods, getting 
into a hole in the earth. Sometimes it lives in a 
hole in the stumi) of au ohl tree. Its young cues 
are sometimes so foinid. AVhat is the food of the 
fox? It feeds on the _//r.s7/ of iillirr ihiiiiiiih. It 
catches living creatures. Tlii' fox is a heast of 
lircij. Describe its cunning, crafty ways of hunt- 
ing them ; its stealinu' at night into the poultry 
house or farui-vard ; catcihni;' oonltrv. rabbits. 



young birds, even mice and frogs, if it can get 
nothing better. It is cpiick in healing, smelling, 
and seeing, so is dillicult to catch. 

Kinds of Fox and Uses Made of Them. 

— The fox of our hind is called the common fox. 
In very cold lands lives the .Vrctic Fox. It issmaller 
than till' fox of this land. Its fur or hail- is wdiite 
or lilnish-gray, ^'erv tlii<'k, long and soft : its feet 
and legs vi-ry liairy. Why does it need such a 
coveiiiig? It is caught in traps anil snares for the 
sake of its line fur. The skin is verv valuable, 
and is use<l for trinnning cloaks and dresses. The 
peoph' living in the cold northern lands sometimes 
eat tlu' flesh of the fox. 

Questions. — \Vhat animal does the fox 
resemble? In what points does it resemble the 
ih)g? Wliat sort of a tail has it? What is the 
tail sometiuii's called, ami )iv whom? Is the fox 
a wild animal? Since it catches and feeds on 
other animals, what is it called? In what way are 
foxes used for sport? For what are its tendons used? 



ANECDOTE. 



A g-entltMiiiin, wlio w:i.s a great luiiiter, once liad a Ijoautiful 
fox, wliicli lit? haii kept lor s<jnie months, inteiuliug 1o nse 
liini for sporting purposes. After a time, the animal learned 
to know his voice, and wouht allow no one et-e to go near 
him, so a sort ot kennel was made for liini in tlie loft of the 
stable, and the gentleman woul<l visit him every day and 
bring liim food. 

*>ne evening lie returned late at nigtit from a journey 
i/hieh llad kept him all day from home, and taking a lantern, 
proceeded to the stal)le to See if the fox \va^ all right. He 
found him crouched at the loot ot the steps which led to the 
loft, and although he manifested great pleasnie at seeing his 
master, yet when he attempted to ascend the loft, the fox 
Immediately ran in front of hira, snarling and showing his 
teeth, and using every effort to prevent hi.s going up. 

On lights and help being procured it was discovered that 
some of the upper fiooring had given way. leaving a fonnid. 
.able hole, through wliich, if the gentleman h.ad gone up with 
no other light than the dim lantern, he would undoulitedly 
have fallen through, and perhaps have been seriously in- 
jured. It is gratifying to know that the huntei never 
allowed that fox to be chafed by his dogs, hut kept him for 
years, so that after a time he used to follow him around tne 
grounds like a dog. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



21 



NOTES OF /./L'.V.SYJX OX 



THE LEOPARD. 




SXTRODUCTION. — Show pictures or 
lilack-board ilrawiugs of a tiger and 
a leopard ; let children notice the most 
striking likenesses and differences ; 
tell the name of the smaller animal. 
^i Where Found. — The leopard abounds 

in Africa and Southern Asia. Show these coun- 
tries on a large globe ; let children tell where 
lions and tigers are found. 

Size- — He is smaller than the tiger, measuring 
about three feet from nose to root of tail, with a 
tail of two feet, three inches, and standing some- 
what more than two feet high. Compare with tiie 
picture and with the size of a large dog. 

Covering. — He has a beautiful skin, the fur 
of which is yellow on the upi)er part and white on 
the under parts, breast, and inside the limbs. It 
is marked with black spots ; those on the head, 
neck, back and limbs being of various sizes, 
irregularis' dispersed, while those on the sides are 
large, consisting of small ones arranged in circles. 
There are ten rows of these s|iot8. 

Shape.— His form is particularly graceful and 
elegarct. 

Head. — This is smaller in proportion than 
that of tiie tiger ; it has small erect e«r.s, bright 
e_)/e.s, and very sharp teeth, like all the cat tribe. 
His irhislxTn are long and white. 

Legs. — These resemble the tiger's, and have 
the same padded feet with retractile claws. 

Tail. — Long and round, gets more slender 
towards the end. 

Compare his structure with that of tiie domestic 
cat. 

Home. — He lives in the forests, where he loves 
to climb tlie trees and catch the monkeys and 
other tree-loving animals. 

Food. — His prey consists ol antelopes, hares, 
monkeys, sheep and cows. He is sly and crafty. 



as well as strong and fierce, and by stealth will 
gain admission into poultry-yards, and with one 
swoop destroj' all the fowls roosting therein. The 
leopard seldom attacks man, and when he does so, 
it is by stealth- If pursued, and brought to bay, 
he will fight with much ferocity and courage. The 
Africans make much of those warriors who have 
killed a leopard. 

Movements. — The leopard is extremely agile ; 
it can run, leaii and climb well. Compare and 
contrast with linn, liijer, etc. 

Character. — Leoi)aids are fierce and blood- 
thirsty, crafty and sly. They may be tamed, but 
can never be entirely trusted. The}- lay up provi- 
sions for the future. 

Methods of Capture. — The leopard is some- 
times shot, but is generally caught in pitfalls, 
which are slightly covered with branches of trees, 
on which pieces of meat are placed. 

Tell any other anecdotes that you may know, 
to illustrate the leoiiard's habits. 

One small species of leopard is called the rhcetnJi, 
and is tamed and used foi- huntiug in India. There 
is also, an animal call('<l the Icoixird rut found iu 
these same countries, and in the East Indies, 
which is small, like (he cat, and siiotted like the 
leopard, thus combining the two animals. 

The panther is regarded by some as a species of 
leopard, though of larger size, with large ring- 
like spots, the centre darker than the color of the 
body. 

Questions. — Its size? Shape? Covering? How 
it may l.)e known ? I!y its spot.'i. A l.ieast of prey 
covered with stripes? What animal in this land 
is like the leopard? In what is the cat like the 
leopard? How does the leopard catch its prey? 
What animals are caught by it? Where does the 
leopard live r 



22 



MODERN METHODS. 




.vorA'.s' or i.E'ixoy ik\ 



THE TIGER. 




LOWEST PRIMARY CLASS. 

PUEVIOI'SLY ileveloptMl lesson >,u 
the cat, a black-lioard ])ietnre of a 
ti<ici', liidiU'ii liv a screen, a class of 
thirty, eager children anxiously await- 
ing the removal of the screen, and 
class and teacher are rea<lv for a talk 
bout the tiger. A short story, introiluc- 
ing men, mounted on elephants, in distant Asia, 

as hunting for the cloth is removed, and 

most of the little ones will tell you that the oliject 
of the hunters' search was a tiger. 

Teacher. — Look carefully, and tell mc if this 
tiger looks like any other animal you have 
Been. 

Pupil. — It looks to iiu' just like a cat. Several 
think the same. 
Teacher. — lien is w.alking to ciiurch with his 



little l)r(jther Alfred. Teople say tliat it must be 
Ben's little Ijrother. I wonder why they would 
think so? 

Pupil. — Because Ills clothes are just like Ben's. 

Teacher. — Yes, peihaps so, but who cau think 
of any other reason ? 

Pupil. — Because he Inoks so much like Ben. 

Teacher. — Yes, now you tell me the tiger looks 
like a cat. Well what relation do you suppose he 
is to the cat'^ 

Pujiil. — lie nuist lie his brother, I think. 
Teacher. — So he is. Now look at him and 
tell me what about him looks like his little brother, 
the cat. 

Pupil. — He has whiskers like the cat. 
I Pupil. — He has four feet and legs. 

Pupil. — He has a tail just like a cat oiJy 
larger. 

pupil. — Ills ears hiok like a cat's. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



2:3 



Teacher. — Yes, find now some tilings aljout tliis 
tiger tliat are not like tlie cat. 

Pupil. — He is a great deal larger than the cat. 

Teacher.' — (Points to her slioulder, measuring 
height, and measures length on floor, letting sev- 
eral children measure distance. ) He is a big fel- 
low. What oiiglit big brothers to do, when they 
have little ones a great deal smaller tlian them- 
selves. 

r>tpil. — They ought to take care of the little 
brothers. 

Teacher. — You look at the tiger and see if you 
think he looks as if he would be gentle and good 
to the dear little cat. 

Pupil. — He looks too cross. 

Teacher. — I am afraid he would be cross. 
Why, I think the first thing he would do would be 
to eat a little kitten, if he saw one. Look at his 
mouth and tell me why you think he could easily 
eat the kitten. 

Pupil. — He has such a big mouth and such ugly 
teeth. 

Teacher. — What else do you think he might 
eat? You know we said he lived in the woods and 
on the great plains, where the hunters search for 
them. 

Pupil. — He could eat rabbits. 

Pupil. — He might eat men if they came too 
near. 

Teacher. — O yes, he is very fierce and would 
tear anything all to pieces. 

Pupil. — He could tiiul little animals to eat too. 
Teacher. — - Now who can find something else 
about this tiger that is not like the cat ? 

Pupil. — • He isn't the same color. 
Teacher. — What color was our kitten? 

Pupil. — ■ She was a gray cat. 
Teacher. — AVhat two colors has the tiger? 

Pupil. — He is black and yellow. 

Teacher. — (Pointing to a stripe.) Who can 

tell what we call this ? It isn't a spot. 

Pupil. — It is a stripe. Some cats have stripes 
too. 



Teacher. — Yes, liow many tliink he is not so 
pretty as the little kitten brother? 

Teacher. — What does our little kitten do at 
night ? 

Pupil. — Slie lias a good, warm chair to slee]) 
ill. 

Teacher. — - What do you suppose the tiger 
does ? 

Pupil. — He lias to have his bed ont in thi 
woods. 
Teacher. — Who can tell me of what good . we 
said tlie little kittens are to us ? 
Pupil. — They catch mice. 
Pupil. — We love our little kittens. 
Pupil. — We like to see them play, 

Tea.cher. — How many think we should like to 
see the tiger play ? He wouldn't play very iirettily 
with his little brother, would he? And how many 
think we should love the tiger? And we know he 
can't catch mice. .Well, of what good can he be 
to anybody? 

Still, how many think that the men wouldn't go 
out and try so hard to catch them, when it is so 
dangerous, if they were not of some good!' No-rt 
I must tell you about the tiger's skin. IVe said 
it was what color ? Yes, well they take that off 
and clean it very carefully, and what do you think 
they do with it? How many know what the man 
who sits on a throne is called ? 
Pupil. — A king, 

Teacher. — Yes. they make these skins into 
great mats, and put tiiem on the thrones, so that 
the kings and queens in these Eastern countries 
can sit on them ; and they are very beautiful. 
How many think they can tell me of one use that 
the tiger is to the people ? 

Summary. — Have dift'erent children represent 
different parts of the tiger and objects connected with 
life and manners of the animal : tiger's body, his home, 
i food, skin, etc. Haveothers in the room ask questions 
pertinent to the sul^ject a child represents. Uncon- 
consciously and pleasantly they are reviewing the vnolo 
lesson. 

— B. B. B. 



-24 



]MUI)EKX MKTllODS. 




.voy/'.s' ((/■ /./;>>( 'A' ox 




THE MONKEY. 

(FLNEUAL DKSCIJII'TIOX. — Siidw a of tlif fniui.'rs, Imt we can move it miposite to 
;_;()(icl iiicliirr (II- (lr:i\\ inu' ol' tile moll- tluMii. Sciinc moiikej'S liavr no thuuili. What is 
key. I'sc it: liirouii'iiout tlii' lii'scriii- I at tlii' mil of llic ]r'r? At lirst it looks like a foot. 
V j^i.i,/,'^ tioii to illustrate the vai'iotis iiniuis It is really mmc like the hand. So the nionkej' 
1^ referred t(i. Desciilie in the usual way I is roui-haiHleil. We use the foot only for walk- 
its general form ami a]>iiearaiiee. It is im; : we use the hand for lioldinu' or grasping. 
^"^ more like a man than any other animal is. , 'I'he nionkey grasps or holds with its ff)ur hands. 
Call attention to its head, body and limbs. It has , Note next its covering. It is hnir)/. The larger 
two arms and two legs. At the end of each arm | kinds are covered with slmif, cnursc hair. The 
is a hand. Some have a timmli as well as tingers. ' smaller with .snj'/, silk;/ hair, more like fur. Look 
How is the thiimli of our hand put i' .Vt the si<le next at the face and head. The nose and the 



NATIKAL HISTORY. 



mouth are stretched out, and somewhat iioiuted. 
Many are more like the uose and mouth of a dog 
than of a man. The monkey has a fail . There 
are kinds of monkeys without a tail. These have 
a different name. They are called apes. What 
is the diffei'ence between a monkey and an ape'i 
The monkey has a tail. The ape has no tail. 

Where and How^ Monkeys Live. — Their 
Ways. — Most of the children have proliaM}- 
seen a monkey. Ask where. AVhat it was doing, 
etc. From this teach that the home of the mon- 
key is in far-off lands. They live in hot countries, 
only in different parts of the world. They may 
have seen a monkey climbing and jiunping 
actively about. This will lead to a description of 
the monkey in its own home. Picture vividly tlie 
great forests ; tlie large numbers of monkeys to l)e 
seen in the boughs and at the tops of tlie trees ; 
their quick and active movements ; the wonderful 
jumps they take from one branch or tree to 
another ; the strange noises they make ; their 
fuuuy, mischievous ways ; the curious waj's they 
have of imitating what they see, etc. They hold 
fast to the branch bj' their hand, and swing from 
bough to bough : some even twist the end of the 
tail round a liranch and swing by it. 

Liemur. — The lemur is a species of monkey, 



Imt of small size, having a sharp nuizzle like the 
fox, and large eyes. They feed upon birds, in- 
sects and fruit. Are mostly found in Madagascar 
and the neighboring islands, one species particu- 
larly in Africa, the cat lenuu- being about the 
size of that animal, and another the size of a 
mouse. 

Kinds of Monkeys. — There are monkeys 
which live always in the trees, seldom coming to 
the ground. Others live chiefly on the ground, 
among the rocks and hills. Some are large and 
strong and fierce ; others are small and gentle, and 
playful in their ways. Some walk on all their 
hands, as dogs and horses do on all their feet. 

Their Food. — They eat the fruit, leaves 
and twigs of many different sorts of trees and 
other plants. They climb the tall cocoa-nut trees 
and take the nuts. Also the dates from the date 
palm. Some also eat insects, the eggs of birds, 
etc. They get into the rice lields and amongst the 
sugar-canes, and do mischief in many ways iu the 
gardens and fields which may be planted near 
their homes. 

Questions. — What animal is most like man' 
In wliat way does it resemble us? Have you ever 
seen a monkey? What are its habits? Food, 
etc. ? Are they mischievous ? In \\hat ways ? 




20 



MODERN METHODS. 




FlO. 1. — AGGAGEERS HUNTING AN ELEPHANT. 



XOTK^ OF f.ESSOX OX 



THE ELEPHANT. 



I. DESCRIPTION. 

a. (ronriiJ (Irsrn'jifiiui. 

b. Sfifvuil sliidi/ of the trunk find its itsfs. 

C. -I;/'' "f clcjllKlHt. 



II. KIND OF ANIMAL. 

Miuiiiiiiil — jirdb'iscididii. 
I'A. KINDS OF ELEPHANTS. 



( ylfrican. 
\ Indian. 



IV. WHERE FOUND. 
V. CHARACTER OF THE ELEPHANT. 



VI. 



USES OF THE ELEPHANT. 

( Buast 111' bimk'n ami of drau2;ht. 

For Iiuiitinj; the tiger. 

lu warfare. 

Ivory. 
( Food. 



Jiidiini. 



Al'ricrni. 



\ Ivory. 



VII. HUNTING THE ELEPHANT. 

Description. — Tlie elephant is the largest land 
animal of the world. It is usually from seven to 
nine feet in height. The largest are about twelve 
feet Jiigh, fifteen feet long, and weigh seven or 
more tons. Jumbo, whom the children of our 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



27 



country and of England used to be so proud of, 
was not quite twelve feet liiiih. Although tlie 
elephant is sucli a huge animal, we must not 
imagine he is anything like a whale in size. It 
would take live or six elephants standing one in 
front of another to equal a whale in lengtli. The 
head of the elephant (See P"ig. 3) is of great 
size and very strong. In a wild state he can pull 
down trees with it. He has large, flapping ears 
and bright, rather small eyes. The sharp teeth in 
tlie front part or our jaws and the jaws of other 
animals are called incisors, a name whicli means 
to cut. In the elepiiant, the incisors of the upper 
jaw are developed into long, tapering tusks (See 
Fig. I ) which increase in size as the animal grows 
old. They are very hard and white and are the 
ivory of which such beautiful ornaments and other 
things are made. Tlie most remarkable thing 
about the elephant is "lis trunk. You may be sur- 
prised to learn that it is really his nose. 

His upper lip and nose are drawn out or elong- 
ated into tliis conical tube, called a trunk or pro- 
boscis. Tile lower lip is triangular and forms a 
cavity into which the trunk can easily be thrust. 
The neck is necessarily short to sustain tlie weight 
of tlie heavy head. The body is thick and slopes 
towards the tail. Tlie legs must needs be short 
and strong to support such an enormous body. 
Notice how stout they are. They look like the 
trunks of trees. The feet are immense and have 
each five toes. They are about half as large 
round as the animal is liigh, so if an elephant is 
tw-elve feet tall he will make a track about si.x 
feet in circumference. (The children can form 
some idea of the size of Jumbo's foot by tying a 
piece of crayon to a string a foot long and repre- 
senting with it a circle on the floor) The skin is 
thick, dark and wrinkled, and has almost no liair 
upon it. You have perhaps heard of white ele- 
phants. They are made so by disease. White is 
not their natural color. 

Trunk. — The elephant's trunk is so wonderful 
we will study that a little more. In a large ani- 
mal it is as long as a tall man. It has a cut-off 
appearance at the end, or is truncated as we say. 



In this end you see the openings into the two nos- 
trils (Fig. 2), wiiich are long canals running entirely 
through the trunk into the head. The nostrils 
communicate with the head liy two other holes 
which the elephant can open and close at will. 
For this reason he can lill liis trunk with water and 
squirt it over himself or over others, as he some- 
times does in sport, or when he is displeased. He 
is fond of swimming and can cross broad rivers. 




FK;. ■->.— Tia:Mi .IK KI.KPHANT. 

a. Muscles ami Temlons. b. Transverse Section. 

When he is swimming, the ti|) of his trunk only is 
visible above the surface of the water. It is kept 
there to enable hiui to breathe. Looking at Fis 
2 you see that at the extremity of the trunk there 
is a small part five or six inches long, which looks 
something like a finger. It bends so easily, or is 
so flexible and also so sensitive, that with it he 
can pick up a small object, fire off a pistol or un- 
cork a bottle. He does so many things with this 



■28 



.MODKKX METHODS. 



nnd his trunk 1li:it the peoplr of India cull liiiii by him to cat and (h'ink. In fact, if it were injured 

ji name which means "the licast with a hand." so that he could not use it. he would soon die. 

Use of the Trunk. — The food of the ele- Nor is this all. It i> his iirincii)al means of ds- 

])liant in a wild sUitc is herbs and the leaves of fense. He can twine it aliout an enemy and toss 

trees and shrubs. His neck is so siiort that he him into the air. or hiu'l liim to the ground and 

raunot get his m<_inth to the ground as thi' cow tranii'le niion him, or rend iiim with his tusks. 




-.UKICA.N K 1.1' I'M ANT. 



does, and other animals that feed upon herliage. 
Neither can he reach with it tlie foliage u[)on the 
branches above his head. 'I'he trunk, like its small 
linger-like jjart, is very lli'xiblc ; so it can move 
up, down, sideways, ov even roll up in a liall, 
•( I'^ig. 2). The elephant can also lengthen and 
shorten it when he pleases. A\'ith it can h>' pull 
up a tuft of grass and carry it into his mcjutii. (ir 
pviU down tall trees and strip the leaves from them 
to eat. Closing his uostrils at the upper end. he 
can fill his truuk with water and discharge it into 
his mouth to (picuch his thirst. We see, then. 
that one use of the elephant's trunk is t(_> enable 



I>ut the eleiiiiant is naturally a gentle, kind ani- 
mal and does not usually injure veiy seriously 
even an enemy, except in self-defense, or when 
vei-y nnich enraged. 

He sometimes tills his truulc with water and 
s(|uirts it over his body to t'ool himself. AVith it 
he can in tlie same way throw ilust over his back 
and sides to keep off insects. 

^\'hen verv warm and annoyed by flies, he occa- 
sionally takes a liram-h of a tree and fans himself . 
With his trunk he makes a peculiar souud calletl 
triHupetiug, because it is a shrill tone something 
like the lilast of a trumpet. The elephant is aware 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



2;> 



of the import:! iK'e of his trunk and ^heu he is in 
danger raises it liigli aliove Iiis head to lieep it out 
of harm's way. He does tliis when hunting the 
tiger, so that it may not be injured by that animal. 

Age. — Elephants reach a great age. It is 
supposed that thej' live to be a hundred and fifty 
or two hundred years old. 

Kind of Animal. — The elephant nurses its 
young, and is therefore a mammal. It has five 
toes on each foot, instead of two, as the camel has, 
some of these are protected by hoofs, so he might 
be called an ungulate, and he is sometimes so 
called, but more often inother name, on account 
of his proboscis is given him. He is called a pro- 
bos-cid-ian. 

Kinds of Elephants. — There are two kinds, 
the African, so called because he lives in Africa and 
the Indian found in Asia. Tliey are very much 
alike except that the African is the larger and has 
iiKinstrous ears (Fig. ■)) which reacli below the 
head. They are sometimes five feet long and four 
feet wide, and are used by the natives for sliields. 
Both males and females have tusks, while the 
Indian female does not. Four of the toes on each 
front foot and three on each back foot are pro- 
vided with hoofs ; Indian elephants have hoofs on 
all the front toes and on four toes of each back 
foot. Jumbo was an African elephant, as can be 
seen by his picture. His tusks were just begin- 
ning to grow when lie was killed. (Fig. 1 ). 

Where Found. — The elephant is a great 
cater. For tliis reason he must be where food is 
abiuidant. .lumbo ate each day two hundred 
pounds of hay, sixty-four quarts of oats, a barrel 
(if potatoes, ten or fifteen large loaves of bread 
and several quarts of onions, besides all the cake 
and peanuts the children gave him. A large ele- 
jihant drinks between two and three barrels of 
water daily. They also take frequent liaths. 
You see then that elephants must live whei-e there 
is plenty of water and au almndant vegetation. It 
is very warm and rains a great deal within the 
tropics. For this reason plants grow fast and 
large tl^ere. The elephant, like the camel, linds his 



home in the Old World, but nearer the equator, in 
the forests and jungles, south of the desert regions. 
The African is found everywhere in the interior of 
the continent where there is food for him. He 
used to live as far south as Cape Colony, but has 
been driven fi'om that section by white men. The 
Indian elephant i-; found (see map) in India, Bur- 
mali, Siam and the Islands of Ceylon, Sumatra and 
Borneo. 

Character of the Elephant. — The ele- 
phant, unlike the camel, is docile and jnxtient. He 
becomes attached to man. .lumbo was never hap- 
pier than when a dozen cliildren were upon his 
back and he was giving them a ride. Of course 
elephants are sometime cross and dangerous, but 
so are dogs and cows. They are likely to grow 
ugly with age. In such cases, their masters keep 
them in subjection by prodding them That is, 
they tie the elephants up and goad them with a 
sliarp pointed instrument called a prod. The ele- 
phant bears it as long as he can. When he finally 
decides to submit and be good, he gives a kind of 
squeal which is his way of saying that he gives 
in. He will then behave quite well for a time. 

Uses of the Elephant. — An animal so 
strong, so gentle and so easily trained is very ser- 
viceable to man. Formerly both the African and 
the Indian elephant were tamed, but now the 
Indian elephant only is domesticated. Attached to 
a plow he will do the work of twenty oxen. There 
is one difficulty, however. He is such an enor- 
mous eater that it costs a great deal to keep him. 
As he can lift heavy weights, he is employed in 
making bridges and in the erection of large build- 
ings. He is useful in carrying stores wheie roads 
have not been made, and for dragging artillery, 
and for piling timber, etc. 

The African elephant is used for food by the 
natives. Except the trunk, the tongne, the heart, 
and the feet, liis flesh is not considered very good 
eating bj' white people, but the negroes like it. 
He is especially valuable on account of his ivory, 
as his tusks are lai'ge, sometimes weighing l.')0 
pounds. Ivory is worth rather more than a dollar 
a pound, so an elephant's tusks are very valuable. 



30 



MODERN METHODS. 



It is said tliat 25,000 elephants are put to death 
every year for their tusks. Ivory is used fur 
handles of knives and brushes and for ornaments. 
The Chinese make the most beautiful articles of it. 
The English use a jireat deal of it in the manufac- 
ture of knives. 

Hunting the Elephant. — The Africans 
hunt the elephant in a rude ^vay. Sometimes they 
dig a pit-fall in his path to some stream of -water, 
and fasten a shar[)-point('il stick at the bottom, 
which pierces him, and prevents his escajic. 

Sometimes the elei)hant-hunters, or aiigageers, 
of the Hanu'an tribe in Africa use swords for kill- 
ing elephants. Thoy follow the tracks of the 
animal, so as to arrive at their game between the 
hours of 10 and l"i A. M., at which time it 'S either 
asleep or extremely listless, and easy to approach. 
Should they discover the animal asleep, one of the 
Inmters would creep steathily towards the head. 



and with one blow sever the trunk while stretched 
upon the ground ; in which case the elephant 
would start upon his feet, while the hunters escaped 
iu the confusion of the moment. The trunk 
severed would cause a loss of blood sutticient to 
insure the death of the elephant within about an 
hour. 

Elephants are usually found in herds of from 
ten to thirt}', led iiy one old elephant called the 
patriarch, whicii directs them and defends them. 
The J^ast Indians sometimes sjiend several weeks 
in capturing a herd. Around an open place iu 
the .inngle they build a high, strong fence of bam- 
boo with one small opening in it. Surrounding 
the herd, they gradually drive them into the path 
leading up to this enclosure. In this way they 
are assisted by the tame elephants, which coax the 
wild elephants into these pathways. 






HLACK-liOAKD OUTLINES. 



SUGGESTIONS. 

". With tlic aid of pii'lnn-s, all mider •• matter," 
oxccpi, tlR- illustrative storirs, can lio taualit by (jucs- 
tions. If possilile, draw upon tlie board those that you 
can n^present easily ; and usi' otlicrs found in bool<s. 
(You can j;et a stencil of an I'lcpliant. ) If you liavc 
not a piece of ivory, some (dnld in tlie scliooi may lie 
able to procure a speciuien for the class to see. 



h. If the cliildrcn ar,' unudi interested and you liave 
time to do so, follow tliis lesson witli a sliorl one upon 
extinct elephants, taking up especially I he Mastodon and 
the remains of ekiiluiuts found in onr own country, 
the Mammoth: and the ivory of Siberia. 

r. To make tlie exercise a in'otitalile lauiiuage les- 
son, let the children reproduce botli orally and in writ- 

im;. 

— ELriRA Carver. 



MODERN METHODS. 



31 



NOTES OF LESSON ON 



SWIMMING BIRDS. 



%lKxi 




^[TRODUCTION.— Show a drawiug of 
some ducks, swans or other swimming 
birds. 

Where Found. — Swimming liirds 
are found in ail parts of the world. 
There are many species which prefer cold 
countries, and migrate in summer time to 
colder regions. 

Method. — P^xplaiu the words •'■species" and 
^^ migrate," aud refer to the habits of the swal- 
low. 




s^-^*?p.^ 



Characteristics of Swimming Birds. — 

These are, leijs jilai-ed far bark cm tlie body. 
Feet short, with webbed toes. 

Covering consists of a very plentiful supply 
of feathers, saturated with oil and a thick coat of 
down next to the skin. Bith generally wide 
and rtattish, also longer than their feet, to enable 
them to search for their food in the water upon 
which they swim. Nerli in many instances long, 
e. (/., the swan. 

Show how all the characteristics are necessary 
for their mode of living. Refer to drawings 
of the swan, duck, and other swinnning birds. 
Show a duck's foot and hill. Children have seen 
a duck put its head under the water for food. 

Kinds of Swimming Birds. — There are 



many kinds of swinuners, but we can only study 
a few now. 




Swans. — These are very elegant, with their 
long necks, beautiful feathers, and graceful 
swimming. They live chiefly on vegetable sul>- 
stauces, and make rough nests with reeds, rushes 
and grasses, upon the banks at tlie side of the 
water. Their eggs are large, and of a dull, green- 
ish white. 

Geese. — The common gray goose, is believed 
to have been domesticated from the European 
wild gray goose, or Gnn/lag. There is also a 
l.ieautiful species of white goose called tlie siioi''- 
gtiose, which is counnon in the Western United 
States in winter, and is a beautiful snowy-white, 
with the tijis of the wings black, aud the legs and 
bill red. 

Ducks. — Some ducks have verj' [iretty col- 
ored feathers. They live in this country, and are 
kept both for ornament and use. 

Uses. — For their Hesh. For their feathers 
and down. For their eggs. 

The Petrel and Sea-GuU. — These are sea- 
birds. They spend most of their time on the water, 
and prefer cold climates. They are found on our 
northern coasts. The Petrel or Stormy Petrel, as 
it is called, because its approach often foretells a 
storm, moves along on the top of tiie water, 
pattering with its webbed feet, and flapping its 



NATURAL HISTOKY. 



wiu^s. It rcciMved the name Petrel from tlie 
word Peter, bee:\use it walks on tlie sea. It is of 
a deei) lilaei< eolnr. with a fesv wliite featliers. It 
hiys its eggs in a cleft of the roeU, or in a rabbit 
burrow. It feeds on small lish, fat, or the refuse 
tlirowu from ships. It is often seen in stoniif/ 
weather, because it can then easily secure its 
lirey. As a means of defense it squirts oil in its 
assailant's face. 

Questions.— ^Mention the names of some 
swimminii birds. What is peculiar about their 



legs and feet that is not to be found in other 
birds ? 

Describe a swan ; a duck. Are duck's eggi, 
good to eat':' Describe the snow-goose. What 
can you tell about the sea-gull':' What bird 
spends most of its time on the water? From 
whence does it get its name ? 

Tell the story of the ugly duckling : how a 
swan was hatched by a duck, and was for a time 
despised by its foster-mother and brothers, but 
gradually it was transformed into a handsome swan. 




.WTE^ OF LESSOX OS' 

DOMESTIC FOWLS. 




INTRODUCTION.— Call attention to a 
farmyaril, and let children give the 
names of some animals kept in such 
a. place. When they come to J'oirls. 
'ask if any of the children have fowls at 
^^ *^ liome. vShc .'• that we call those kept by 
]ieo])le i](iiiu'.ttii- foir/fi, just as we call our 
liiiusi'-cat a domestic animal. The woid dmiKstii- 
means belonging to the house. This class int-hnles 
turkeys, geese, ducks and all birds which have 
the lialiit of scratt'hing the ground in search of 
f ooi I . 

Uses. — For Thi^ir I'^ocs. — These form a 
valualile diet, and if jieople have sullicient room to 
keep fowls, thry will liiid that by careful atteuti(.)n 



to their food and houses they will secure a large 
protit. 

FoK Their Flesh.— The tlesh of young fowls 
is very sweet and tender. 

FoK Tiii'.n: Fe.\tiiei!S. — The small feathers 
may be used for stuHing pillows, etc. — The 
handsome feathers from the tail of the rooster are 
used to ornament hats. 

Method. — Show some hen's eggs. Explain 
how nutritious they are. Ask who has tasted 
fowl, either l)oiled or roasted. 

Description. — Among a number of f(jwls we 
notice the ri)OSfei\ the hens, ;ind the little chickens. 

The Rooster is a handsome bird, with a very 
line tail. He has his head crowned by a notched, 



MODERN METHODS. 



33 



crimson, fleshy substance called a comb, and lias 
two pendulous, fleshy bodies of the same color, 
hanging under his throat, called iciMles. He is 
provided with a sharp horn or spur on the outside 
of his foot, with which he inflicts severe wounds. 
The Hen is smaller than the rooster, and, except 
in the pure white breeds, less beautiful. She has 
a comb, but it is smaller, and less bright than that 
of the rooster. 

The Chickens. — These are the babies. They 
come out of eggs, which the hen lays and sits 
upon. Her warmth brings the chickens to life, 
when they break their shells with their beaks, and 
come out. They have no featiiers at first, but 
are covered with soft, yellow down. They follow 
their mother, wlio finds them food, and run under 
her wings for safety when they are frightened. 

Method. — If possible show a large picture of 
each bird, and let children thoroughly examine it, 
noticing particularly the points mentioned. Sliow 
that this class of birds is distinguished by having 
a rounded, heavy body, covered witii loose 
feathers, which sometimes on the neck assume 
the character of plumes ; the wings are short, 
round, and concave underneath. These are not 
nearly so useful for locomotion as the legs ; for 
short distances they fly tolerably well, but are 
more at home on the ground. The legs are very 
strong and firm and the tendons of the muscles 
are of a l:iony nature. The structure of the beak 
should be noticed, and a real foot and beak should 
be shown. 

Describe the claws, which are extremely hard, 
and particularly suited to the bird's mode of living, 
enabling it to dig and scratch up the earth in 
search of its food, which consists principally of 
seeds, roots and insects. 

Habits. — Houses. — Some fowls are very 
valuable, and great care is taken in raising them. 
They must have a warm, dry, well-ventilated 
house. It must be provided with shelves fur- 
nished with baskets or boxes formed along the 
walls. These should be lined with straw ready 
to receive the eggs and form the nests. The 



house must have a yard or run attached to it, 
where the fowls may get air and exercise during 
the day. The floor of both house and yard nnist 
be kept dry and clean. The house nuist contain 
perciics. 

Food. — Fowls nuist be well fed. In farmyards 
they can run freely about, and pick up for them- 
selves, requiring then only a little hand-feeding. 
Waste house-scraps may be mixed with their 
grain. They nnist have fresh green vegetables, 
as grass, cabbages, etc., also some mortar or shell 
rubbish, from which egg shells are made. 




KU<^STEK AND HEN- 



Character. — The rooster is very courageous; 
he struts about at the head of the hens as though 
ready to protect them from danger. Tiie hen 
is generally timid, Imt when slie lias a brood 
of chickens will fiercely attack any enemy. She 
takes great care of her little ones. 

Questions. — What is the meaning of the 
word domestic? AVliy do people keep fowls? 
What are they good for? What are the young 
fowls called ? For what are fowls' feathers used ? 
How do the cliickens look when they first come 
from the shell ? Tell about some chickens you 
have seen. How does the hen differ from the 
rooster? What do fowls require for food? Can 
they fly well? Describe the claws? G-ive some 
otlier description of their habits. 



34 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



KOTlif! OF /.ES.^ON Oy 



BIRDS. 





-Skeleton of Vulture. 



I.— The Skeleton. 

IK )^V fi'din an illustration that the liones 
of the lc<i' i>\' a bird are arranged on 
the same ]ilan as those of niannnals, 
Imt ill a eonsideralily nioditied form. 
We lind a l/ilijh bone and tiro Icfj bones 
hvays present, thousiii the smaller of the 
two latter isoi'ten but iuiperfeetly devehiiied. 
Then, iu plaee of the ankle and foot bones, there 
is a single long bone ealled tlu' tar.sii.s. To the 
tarsus, which is cominonlv hioked upon as the leg- 
bon^', till' toes aie joined. The :;>cs vary in num- 
ber and arrangenn'nt, and in the mnnber of joints 
in eaeh. Generally there are /'oh/-, of which three 
are in front, ai\i\ one lieliiml. (The ordinary pcsi- 
tion of the toes may be shown fmni the leg of a 
hen). 

II. — How Birds Perch. — The special 
arrangement, by whicli most bird.s can sit and 



sleep on a branch or twig, is the most interesting 
and striking |)ecaliarity iu the structure of the 
bird's leg. All children will have seen how a 
canary rlii.i/is its pei'ch with its toes, and will know 
in what [losition the bird sleeps. A boy can 
balance himself sitting ou a branch, and he may 
••hold un " to secure his seat: but should lie fall 
asleep he would lie certain to get a fall of another 
kind. But when a bird sits down on a luanch to 
fei'd, to rest, or to sleej), it cauuot fall off if it 
would. The very act of sitting down makes the 
toes clasp the branch, whether the bird wills it or 
not. The arrangement is this : a flat, ribbon-like 
cord passes from a large muscle of the thigh over 
the knee-joint, and then winds over to the back of 
the leg, being kept in its place by a small muscu- 
lar ring. It then passes down behind the leg 
bone, and over the back part of the joint of the 
leg lione with the tarsus, where it passes through 
a second muscular ring. It continues along the 
l).ack of the tarsus to the junction of the toes, and 
then divides into cords which [lass along under 
the toes. 

l!y this arrangement, ivlien the joints are bent 
as they are when the bird sits down, or when it 
raises its foot in walking, the cord is stretched, or 
iniUed, and the toes are made to grasp without 
any effort ou the part of the bird. The teacher 
may show this from the illustration, but a far 
more instructive illustration will be to show the 
actual working of the cords in the leg itself. 
Take a fowl's leg. Cut through the skin at the 
joint lietween the tarsus aud the leg, and dislocate 
the joint with the point of the knife ; a small pull 
will lireak the cord at its junction with the muscle 
in the thigh, and it will be drawn out as a soft, 
thick, but very strong white ribbon. Pull this 
cord, and the toes will close as if grasping. 

Advantage maj' be taken of the specimen to 
sliow the seal}' covering of the leg. 



MODERN METHODS. 



35 




ft. Leg and Foot of Curlew, h. Head of Snipe 
c. Beak of.lvocet. 

WADING BIRDS. 



a. Head of Hoopoe. 

b. Head of Ited-hacked .'i'hri/M-, 

c. Head of Swift-bellied Swift. 



d. Head (f Co'n.buntinn- 

e. Foot of til e Yellow Wtigtail. 

f. Foot of a Finch. 



rKiiCHERs. 



3H 



NATl'KAL IlISTOHY. 



III. — Special Uses and Modifications 
in Structure. — We have now to consider the 
iliftVreut duties whieh the legs have to pevfonn, 
and tlie consequent chaniies in structure. All are 
usi'd more or less in walking, hoppnig, or run- 
ning; very many are used as supports during rest 
and slee]), and not a few ai'c used as hands lo 
hold tlie food while the beak cuts or tears it in 
pieces. (Refer to the black-liird, with an earth- 
worm, canai-y, with chick-weed, parrot, willi nut, 
etc) . 

At the same time the special stru<-ture of llie 
leas and feet of l)irds for s])e<-ial duties are suf- 
ficiently marked to enable us to airange the birds 
in groujis accordingly. Thus we have Srncrs^ 
like the I'agle, Perrlii'rs. like the robin, Cli iiihcrs, 
like the parrot, y<rriitr}n'.rx, like tlie fowl, Jiinnicr.s, 
liketiie ostrich, Wadi'rs, like tiie heron, and S/rlm- 
YHcrs. like tlie duck. 

LEGS AND FEET OF BIRDS. 

I. — Seizers. — "Birds of Prey." — In this 
group the legs are strong, and the toes are fur- 
nished with strong, curved, and sharply-pointed 
claws, specially adapted for the capture of living 
prey of considerable size. The vulture, eagles, 
hawks and owls ai'e all "birds of prey." The 
members of this group have four toes — three 
before and one behind; but the owls can place 
the outer toe of the three either in front or 
behind. 

II. — Perchers. — This group includes the 
vast majority of the small birds which live in this 
country. They are also called jiiis!<i-res (pa.sser, a 
sparrow). These birds for the most part spend 
the greater portion of their lives among the 
brandies of trees, on which they perch, and hop 
from twig to twig. Their feel, are specially con- 
structed for this jiurpose. The toes are usually 
three in front and one behind, and the cLaws are 
sharp, but long and slender, and of sutHcient 
strength to secure the bird firmly to its perch. 

III. — Climbers. — .Ml the birds in this grouji 
have tiro Iocs heftirc and tmi behind. This enables 
them to cliiiii- with sreat tenacity to the branches 



of trees, .jr to climb up the perpendicular tree 
trunk. Parrots and woodpeckers are the chief 
examples of the group. Parrots climb rather by 
i-hdfping small luaiiches. Woodpeckers run over 
the bark of the tree trunk, and larger branches, 
ill every direction by inserting their strong, sharp 
claws into any irregularities of the surface. 

IV. — Scratchers. — t'hietly fowl and game 
birds. Show the leg of the fowl again in illustra- 
tion, and jioint out that the legs of scratchers are 
strong, the toes rather short and thick, and the 
claws stout and strong and lit for scratching ovev 
the surface of the ground in search of food. 

V. — Runners. — 'I'hese birds depend entirely 
on their legs for locomotion, hence they are .'ong, 
stout and strong. They ne\'er perch and few toe? 
are required. In the ostrich they are reduced to 
/«•'(, and 'n the <'mu to ilii-cc. and they are all 
jioiiited forwards. (The teaclier may here refer 
to the speed of the ostrich, to au ostrich hunt, and 
to its manner of di'fending itself by kicking for- 
wards) . 

VI.— Waders; or Stilt-Walkers.— These 

birds, of which the heron and crane are familiar 
examples, trade into the water after the food on 
which they feed, Jience their legs are of unusual 
length. The length of leg has won them the title 
of stilt-walkers. 

VII. — Swimmers. — Tliis group includes 
geese, ducks, and sea-liirds generally. The feet 
are specially constructe<l for swiimning. (Show 
duck's foot). The legs are short and strong and 
placed far back on tiie body, and tlie toes are 
united by a stout menibraue — the web. 




XAl'lRAL HISTORY. 



XOTICS OF LESSON ON 



THE EAGLE. 




^^^TS GENERAL APPEARANCE. - 

Show a pifture or drawing of the eagle. 
15_v questions and statement set forth a 
clear and vivid genvral description of 
the bird. Its great size; the largest 
measuring tiuee feet in length, and nine 
feet from tip to tip of the outstretched wings. 
Show these measurements clearly on table or large 
black-board, or the Hoor. Illustrate by comparison 
with size of the swan. Less bulky in body, but 
with larger stretch of wing and tail. It is one of 
the very largest flying birds. 7/.s' lieuk. curved, 
very strong and sharp, with a wide-stretching 
mouth; its tuhjiis or clmrs, four; three in front, 
one behind, sharp, very strong and curved. Its 
eyes bright, bold-looking, and large ; its spreading 
icitKjs and tail, the beautiful covering of feiit/wrs ; 
large on wing and tail, smaller on body, all of 
them rich in color ; different colors — brown, red- 
dish, gray, white, black, golden-coloved ; making 
a soft, warm, light clothing for it. 

Where, and How, The Eagle Lives. — 

The E.\gle"s Home. — Children who live in towns 
or where many people live together do not see 
eagles, unless it is one which has been caught and 
shut up in a cage. They live far away, where 
few people go ; generally, where there are high 
hills, and great forests, or tall sea-cliffs. It 
usually makes its home on the top of a mountain. 
What is the home of a bird called ? Describe the 
eagle's nest. Perched on the top of a high rock, 
reached only by a long, weary climb over rocks 
and hills, not often looked into by the eye of any 
man. What made of? Small branches of trees 
and busnes put loosely together. There the 
mother bird lays two or three large eggs ; from 
these come the young, called emjlets. On a ledge 
of rock near may be seen the bones of other birds, 
even a lavib, or young deer. How came these 



there ? They are the bones of creatures caught Iiy 
the parent birds, and brought to the young as 
food. The eagle is a bird of jirei/. No other 
nest is near. No bird or animal lives near it. 
Even a man is in danger who goes near it. The 
eagle flies fiercely upon its foe, and strips and 
tears with its sharp talons and beak. 

How The Eagle Gets Its Food.— 

Describe vividly the starting upwards from the 
mountain-top, rising higii in the air, tlie 
circling fliglil, till almost out of sight, looking 
like a speck, tiiough so large. But why does it 
fly so high ? Can it find food there ? No ; but 
it can see over a wider space of groimd, and so 
be better able to see where its prey is. Explain 
and illustrate how this is. But that it may see at 
such a distance, what kind of eyes must it have? 
Speak of its keen, 2iierc-ini/ sitjht. Then how can 
it reach what it sees? Small animals run quickly 
out of sight; /)irds fly quickly away. Speak of 
the eagle's swift flight, the sudden drop, as of a 
stone out of tlie air. How does it seize its prey ? 
The sharp talons ; the strong, firm grip, the 
upw'ard, darting flight shoidd all be described. 
Let questions of revision bring out the several 
points of structure which have been taught, and 
how they aft'ect the eagle's habits ; the swift strong 
wings; where they take the bird; why it goes 
there ; the keen, piercing sight ; the strong, sharp 
curved beak ; etc. 

Kinds o^ Eagles. — Eagles are of different 
sizes and kinds. Tlie largest and finest is the 
Golden Eagle, so called because of the rich golden 
color of many of its feathers. Another is the 
Sea Eagle (Osprey). It lives on hills and cliffs 
near the sea and catches fish. It sees the fish 
swinnning near the top of tlie water and tlcops 
down upon it from its great heiglit in the air. 



38 




A BLACK-BOABD SKETCH. 



FISHES. 



[Illiastrato -witli iiictiiivs. a i\r:ii] spi'c inn'ii, and. if 
possible, a live >ik (iiinii in walcr — a uiikl lish, for 
instance]. 

I.- INTRODUCTION. 



,, ISIIES are iiihaliitauts of the water, 

^jH «-itlicr fresh water or salt. Here they 

liere thev live, ami here 



}x^^0t they ilie. They are not, however, 
If^^'^^ seattered without order or arrange- 
^y ment ; on the contrary, just as iu the 

case of land .-ininials, their instincts lead 
them to make a home in that part best adapted to 
their well-being. Some live near the surface of 
the ocean, others never (jnit the depths : some 
revel on the sa)idy floor, others grovel in the ooze 
and mud ; some never (juit the salt water, others 
spend a portion of their time in the waters of 
rivers ; some are altogether fresh-water tish. We 
find similar habits of life, too, in the water as on 
land; some lish live in solitude, others in shoals; 
some occnj)y tlie same locality all the year ; others 
iu vast numbers migrate from oue part to another. 

The tyi>ical form of a fish is well known, Ijut we 
flud other and curious shapes. Some lish are 
round as globes, otiiers are Hat as Ijoards ; some 
are as broad as long, otliei's are long and thin, 
with .scarcely a dilf erence in thickness throughout. 

The body is usually covered with scales, and 
these are of all siiapes, sizes and colors. They 
vary in size from a point to a plate ; and in color 



from the dullest shades to the l)righest hues of th« 
rainbow. 

Fishes feed on succulent marine vegetaliles ; on 
worms ami shell lisii, liut mostly they devour otlu'r 
lish. In the sea, might is right; the great ones 
eat the small, and the strong devour the weak. 
They have no respect for even their own kindred. 

It will be impossible for us to consider the vari- 
ations in form and structure of the vast multitude 
of fishes. It will be sutficicnt for us to take a com- 
mon example — the Codfish or ^Mackerel — to 
show how beautifully fishes are litted for the 
watery I'lement in which they live. We shall first 
1 ask and answer four questions — How do _fixhes 
•muri'.' lloir (ire t/ii'i/ protedjil ? JIoio do they 
bn'dfhc^ Jfoir do tlicy feed? And it will be cou- 
venient to answer the lirst two in this lesson. 

II.-- HOW DO FISHES MOVE? 

1. — .s/iiijic iif Bodij. 

V>y actual experiment in a vessel of w.ater, show 
that one ,/(*/•//( of body can be moved more easily 
through the water than another. Take a cone or a 
wedge of wooil, for example, and pass through 
the water, lirst with the base forward and then 
with the point or edge. Show next that the body 
of the fish is shaped something like a pair of wedges 
set back-to-back ; the hinder oue coming almost to 
a point, but with the edges pared off. Refer to 
the shajies of boats, and elicit why they are so 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



39 



shaped, and generally lead up to the proposition, 
that the body of the fish is so shaped that it can be 
moved through the water with the least possible 
amount of force. 

2.— The Tail and Fins. 

Make a black-board outline. The attention 
of the children should be drawn to the graceful 
sweep of the hinder half of tlie body and the tail 
from side to side, and the consequent motion for- 
wards. Refer to the way in wliich a boatman 
propels his boat with a single oar placed over the 
stern of the boat. The boatman imittites the fish 
in this use of the scull. 

The fins vary in number and pijsition, but most 
fishes have five kinds. Just behind the head there 
is one pair ; these correspond to the fore-limbs of 
mammals, and are called Pcftoral, rix: breast 
fins. A second pair corresponds with the hind- 
limbs. These are the Ventral, viz : belly fins. In 
some fishes these are placed as far back as the 
tail, in others as far forward as the throat. Besides 
the Caudal or Tail fin, there are other fins placed 
perpendicularly along the upper and lower sides of 
the body. These are the Dorsal and jinal fins. 
AVith the exception of the C'andal fin, the chief use 
of the fins is for balancing. Cut off tlie lins and 
the fish rolls over on to, its flat side. The fins are 
merely folds of the skin spread out, and strength- 
ened and supported by bony spikes. 

III.— THE COVERING OF FISHES. 

The general covering of mannnals is laiir, that 
of hivda, feathers, that of fishes consists of -fcales. 
The teacher will show the scales of any fisii he may 
have secured. He will call attention to the way in 
which they are arranged on the body ; liow tliej' 
overlap like shingles on a house, but from head to 
tail instead of from above downwards. The front 
edges of scales are embedded and held firmly in 
folds of the skin. The fish-dealer, to remove the 
scales, scrapes his knife from the tail to the head. 
By this means the knife gets under the free edge 
of the scales, and forces tiiem off. The scales 
form a beautiful protecting skeleton, and at the 
same time admit of perfect freedom of motion. 



The slimy covering ovt'r tlie scales will next be 
brought under notice, with the purpose it serves ; 
and lastly, the teacher may deal with a-ny modifi- 
cations in the scaly skeleton as time and oppor- 
tunity offer. 

IV.- HOW THEY BREATHE. 

Explain to the children first of all what is the 
real essence and object of breathing, viz : getting 
fresh air in contact with vessels containing the 
blood, so that the oxygen may get in through 
the walls, and the impure air may come out. The 
blood must thus be cleansed or the animal dies. 
The larger land animals take air into Innf/s or sacs, 
the walls of which are covered witii blood-vessels, 
and the exchange of pure for ini]nire air is thus 
made. But fishes living l)eneath the surface of the 
water cannot make the exchange in this way. All 
natural water contains a certain amount of air, and 
it is tills air which the fish has to take out. When 
water is boiled this air is driven out, and if a fish 
be placed in water lately boiled, it turns over on 
its side and dies witliout a struggle. Its blood- 
vessels are arranged on a bunch of leaflets placed 
on each side of the head — the gills ; and over 
these gills the water is constantl}' flowing. The 
gills may be called the lungs of fishes, because 
they have to serve the same purposes. 

Show the gills of a fish. They look like fringes. 
Under the microscope they are seen to be full of 
thin-walled blood-vessels. As the water flows 
over these blood-tubes, sutHcient air passes through 
the thin walls from the water to the blood to keep 
the latter pure. Of course, at the same time, the 
impure air escapes into the water. When a fish is 
taken from the water the gills shrink and fall 
together and become dry ; and the fish dies because 
its gills cannot do their work. The fish is, in fact, 
suffocated for want of air, just as much as a mouse 
would be suffocated if held under water. Both die 
for want of the necessary air. 

If we watch a fish we see that it appears to be 
constantly drinking. This is not so, however. 
The water, it is true, is taken into the mouth, but 
it is passed back over the gills and out through 



40 



MODERN METHODS. 



the holes at the siiless. The thi'oat is closed mean- 
while, and uo water enters the stomach. 

v.— HOW FISHES FEED. 

To learn how fishes feed we ma^' look at the 
month, the teeth, the tongne and the lips. The 
lips are horny, and hence there can be little or 
no sense of feeling. The tongue is also immova- 
ble, and often bony or beset with bony jjlates, 
hence tlie sense of taste can be but slight. The 
teeth are very varialile in number, form and posi- 
tion ; but, for the most [lart, they are simple co)ii- 
cal spikes witii the points bent backwards towards 
the throat. Tiiese teeth are suitable for seizing 
and liolding, and not for chewing. AVemay learn, 
therefore, by a simple inspection of the mouth, 
that fishes mostly catch their prey alive, and swal- 
low it whole. 

VI.— SPECIMEN FISH. 

The teacher slionid now direct attention to any 
YJeculiarities iu structure and iialiit of such com- 
mon fish as are within his reach. We take two 
illustrations, a Flat Fish and Et4. 

l.— FMFI^h. 

Most people imagine that the <lark side of a /((/ 
fish is the back and tlie light side the belly; but 
really these fish are compiessed sideways like the 
herring, only to a greater extent. Then both eyes 
are on the dark side, but when (|uitf vonng the 



eyes were on Ijoth sitles. As the animal grows, one 
eye works round to the same side as the other. If 
we look at the fish at home these peculiarities iu 
structure would be explained at once. Flat fishes 
spend much of their time either resting on, or par- 
tially covered by, the sand or mud at the bottom 
of the water: and the color of the fish so much 
resembli's the fioor on which it rests that it is not 
easily distinguished. Again, resting on the mud 
or sand, an eye on the lower side would be worse 
than useless. Dorsal and ventral fins extend quite 
along the body from head to tail. The scales 
are very small, and so are the teeth. 

2.— Evh. 

This iish takes the shape of a snake. It looks 
and feels as if it had no scales. It has, however, 
a vast (juantity, though so small as to be almost 
invisible. Eels are very slimy fish and difficult to 
hold. The chief peculiarity iu the eels, besides 
theii- shaijc. is the arrangement of the gills. Instead 
of the oi)ening of the gills for the exit of water 
being close at hand, it is placed far back, and con- 
sists of but a small hole. When this hole is closed 
the fish can keep its gills moist for some time, and 
thus live out of water. In fact it occasionally 
happens that when one piece of waier is pretty 
well dried up eels migrate to another place, creep- 
ing over the ground like snakes. Eels pass the 
winter iu a, tor^jid state in the mud. 




MODERN METHODS. 




4-.' 



MODERN METHODS. 



XOTES OF LESSON OX 



THE CLAM AND THE OYSTER. 



[The salt-water round clam or quahog is takeu as the 
ilhistratiou for this lesson merely because in my experi- 
ence it has been easiest to get. If you find the long 
clam more accessible, or living in land the fresh-water 
clam, use that, but by all means have actual specimens 
of some sort. To show the action of the siphon in the 
living fresh-water animal use a shallow dish of any 
kind, put the specimens into it and add enough water 
to cover. After a period of quiet you will see the 
" foot" and the siphon extended. Xowdropa little ink 
or bluing carefully near the extended siphon and watch 
the currents. To show this with the other clams you 
must of course put them into sea water. 

The parts of the body are not so easy to make out 
when one has not already had some pi'actice at dissec- 
tion but by doing the M'ork under water (which floats 
the membranes apart and so I'cnders them more easily 
studied), following the description and the illustra- 
tions, no difflculty will probaljly be felt in making out 
the chief points mentioned.] 

The Shell — Valves. — The most striking part 
of the clam is not the annual Imt the shell, the 
house ill which the animal lives and so we will 
look at that lirst. AVlien cleaned it is white, 
somewhat convex and ctmsists of two equal parts 
which are hinged tosjether at one side and when 
freshly taken from the animal these two parts can 
be closed liy pressing them together in the hands, 
but ou removing the pressure they again fly open. 

These are the doors, or i-alvcs, as they are called, 
of the house and because there are two of them 
the shell is a hi-ralrc. a term used for all similar 
shells and also ai)i)lied to the animals which make 
and iuhaliil them. 



Liigament. — Examining the hinged side we 
notice fastened to it a dark brownish, very tough 
substance known as the liijtivii^nt. AVhen this is 
cut, which is not easy to do — or torn — readily 
done when tlioroughly dry — the valves no longer 
fly open. This ligauient then nmst bo a sort of 
spring put tliere not to shut but to open the valves 
and so the shell of cnir clam may be likened to a 
house without windows but with doors intended to | part of the animal called the mautle 



stay open by means of a spring. (In the so-called 
long clam this ligament corresponds in position 
and action to a piece of strong rubber put between 
the two parts of the hinge of an ordinary door 
which is compressed by the shutting of the door 
and forces the door open on removing the pres- 
sure. See if it holds a like position in the round 
clam or in the fresh-water clam,) 

Lines of Growth. — Look now at the out- 
side of either valve and notice a series of lines, 
parallel with the gracefully curved free edge of the 
valve and hence one within another (concentric). 
(Feel of the shell then see what it is that makes it 
rough). These concentric lines are //»es of growth 
each one was once the edge of the shell and as the 
animal grew it added another and another line of 
matter so as to keep room for itself inside. 

Muscle-scars; — Pallial Line- — Look next 

at the inside of a valve. Along the edge is a rather 
broad glossy purplish band with a slight depres- 
sion at the right and another at the left. These 
are the mnsrlc-scnrs and each marks the ]ilaee 
where a muscle was fastened, the use of which was 
to shut the shell. (See Fig. 1 ). 




Fig. 1. 

The line marking the innei' edge of the purplish 
land is the jiullial line : to this was attached the 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



43 



Inside of this line the rest of the shell is a 
chalky white. 

Material of the Shell.— P«t next a drop of 
muriatic acid on the shell as you did in the ease of 
the sea-urchin and the coral and observe whether 
tlie same effect is produced. What is the material 
of which the shell is made ? 



Gills. — At g are two thin folds of membrane 
marked with fine parallel ridges and lying one 
above the other. By means of these the clam 
breathes. Special organs for breathing the air 
contained in water are called gills. These are the 
clam's Gills. 




Fig. 2.— RIOHT VAI.VE WITH MANTI.K REMOVED. 

The Animal — the Mantle. — Put a live 
clam into hot water for a short time. Then witii 
the aid of a strong knife you can pry ojien the 
valves and running the point of the knife crrefully 
along the inside of one valve separate it from the 
animal. Lifting off the now separated valve we 
find a thin membrane, which lined the valve and 
W.1S fastened to the pallial line. This membrane 
is the mantle, and its use is to make and repair 
the shell. Cutting this carefully away, we have 
something like Fig. 2. 

Adductor Muscles — Siphon.^ At each 

side (//() the cut end of the piukisli muscle which 
by its shortening shuts the valve. These are the 
uddw-to- miisrlc^:, the scars of which we before 
noticed on the inside of the valve. 

On the left side (s) a fleshy part, capable of 
considerable extension and having two openings 
directed toward the left. This is the siphon. It is 
much more prominent in the long clam (Fig. 3). 
Through the larger of the openings, water with 
floating bits of food is taken in by the clam and 
through the other • opening the water is again 
discharged. 



Fig. 3. 



Body-"foot." — Lifting u[) the two gills we 
see the thick body of the clam, the lower right- 
hand portion of which can be extended out of the 
shell as a tongue-shaped mass, and being used to 
move the animal about in the sand or mud in which 
it lives it is called the '■'■foot." Lifting up the 
body next we find under that two gills similar to 
the two already observed and beneath them, lining 
the still attached valve {ma, Fig. 2) the other 
part of the mantle, showing its thickened, dai'k- 
colorod and ruft'ed outer edge. 

The Oyster. — Compare now the shell of the 
oyster with that of the clam and note that the twot 
valves are not alike in size, one, larger and deeper 
than the other, is the lower or left valve and gen- 
erally bears marks on the outside of having beeu 
attached to something ; the other, smaller and 
flatter, is of course the upper or right valve. 
There is but one muscle-scar, instead of two as in 
the clam. 

Comparing the animals, notice the mantle and 
the gills. There is no siphon, and no foot. The 
dark portion toward the hinge contains the stomach 
and liver, — the blackish part being mainly liver. 
Near it is also the mouth, ditticult, however, to 
find. 



44 



MODERN METHODS. 



Structure. — t'ominired with the auimals we 
have studied before, we notice that the clam and the 
oyster are not made ii[) of ring-like parts, nor of 
parts radiating from a centre, but that they are 
soft-bodied animals enveloped in a bag-like " man- 
tle " and inclosed in a hard, limy shell. Such ani- 
mals are called Mollusks or JloUusca, and those 
niolliisks having the thin leaf-like giUs, as the 
oyster and clam, are known liy the long name of 
LomeUibranchx which means, very nearly, leaf- 
gills. Because they have no distinct head they are 
also sometimes called in the books Arephuls, mean- 
ing headless, but because of the two parts to the 
shell it may lie easier to remember them simply as 
bivalri's. 

Kinds of Mollusks.— There are about 2(i,(iO() 
different kinds of IMoUusks of which number about 
.5000 are bi-valves. The latter range from tiny 
shells to the giant clam Tridacna, sometimes five 
feet across, the shell alone weighing nearly five 
hundred pounds. Some are lixed permanently to 
one place like the oyster ; others, as the clam, 
move slowly about, still others as the scallop, with 
considerable rapidity. Some liore into solid rock, 
others, as the so-calleil " siiip-worm " which is not 
a worm, bore into wood. 

Besides the oyster and clam, the pecten or scal- 
lop, and the nuissel are common in the markets of 
our sea-port cities. 

Where Found. — Ilivnlves, and so of course 
Mollusks, of some sort, are found almost every- 
where in fresh and in salt wati'r, but chietly in the 
latter and as a rule in not very deep water. 

Uses. — Tlie oyster, chun, scallop, and nuissel 
are used for food, the first especially being culti- 
vated for this [lurpose. Jn .Inly and August the 
oyster lays its eggs and the young swim aliout for 
a lime after hatching before tliey fasten themselves 
to objects on tlie bottiim. In from two to four 
years they are reailv for market, and are gathered 
by being scraped from tlie bottom with a dredge. 

The clam is also used for bail. Among other 
bivalves the pearl-oyster yields the valued pearls. 
Pearls are often formed in the common oj'ster, the 



clam, and the fresh-water clam, those from the 
last-named having sometimes a money value which 
is not true of the others. Thes(» pearls are formed 
by grains of sand or other particles getting be- 
tween the mantle and the shell and there being 
covered with the substance which the mantle se- 
cretes. The shells of certain bivalves furnish us 
with the material called motlier-of-pearl used in 
making buttons, knife-handles and inlaid work, 
while the shells of all mollusks can be, and of 
manv are, "burned'" fur quicklime. 




Fig. 4. — SIPHON (S) AM» I«M>T (F EXXENDKD. 



CLAM. OYSTER. 





valves. 


\'alvrs 




lii^aiiicnt. 


liuaiueiit. 


The Sl'.ell. - 


lilies of arowtli. 


lines of urowth. 




iiiiisele-scars (2). 


muscle-scar. 




liaUial line. 


pallial Hue. 




uuiterial of shell. 


material of shell 




ni.Tiitlo. 


inautle. 




aildiK'tcu' iiiuscles. 


adductor muscle. 




siplion. 




riie animal. - 


U-iUs. 


■rills. 




bodv. 


bodv. 




foot. 






.structure. 


structure. 


Kiiuls of M 


allusks. AVliere foui 


id. Uses. 



Subjects for composition work will be suggested 
by the preceding lessons, which see. It will be 
well to have the descriiitions largely comparative ; 
the aliility to recognize the same essential thing 
under different forms is of value to others besides 
naturalists, and one of the chief uses of the study 
of natural history after all is to open one's eyes 
and enable one to see things straight. 

— F. W. STAEliNKR. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



4o 



NOTES OF LESSON OfT 



THE LOBSTER AND THE CRAB. 




I. — THE LOBSTER. 

AY the lobster back up. Its color is 
(lark greenish or greenish-black often 
J^/ mottled ^vith reddish-yellow, but vary- 
K^^^^ ing considerably in shade ; after being 
^®^iJSS<* ijoiled it is brigiit red. Scratch the 
%^ outside with a pin or your finger-nail — you 
^ find it hard. Note that the body is long 
and nearly cylindrical. Observe two distinct 
parts commonly calle<l "head" and "tail" re- 
spectively. The "head" is all one piece, but on 
it is a more or less plainly-marked groove running 
downwards and forwards each side from the back. 
All in front of this line is head and all back of it 
corresponds to the separate part we call thorax, 
when studying the bee. But since head and tho- 
rax are here merely divided by a curved line we 
call the piece head-thorax, or cephido-thorax, mean- 
ing just the same thing. The "tail," made up of 
rings, is the abdomen. (Figs. 1 and 3). 

Head-thorax. — In the middle line of the 
cephalo-tiiorax is a shaip projection extending 
forward beyond the body, the rostrum or beak. 
On either side of this at itfi base is a little mov- 
able stem or stalk with a rounded black spot on 
its end. This black spot is an eye, made up of 
many smaller eyes, therefore a comjnnmd-eye. 
The stalk supporting it is an eye-sitalk. Under 
the eyes is a pair of long many-jointed feelers or 
anteniue, and in front of the eyes a similar pair of 
shorter autennre or antennules, but while each an- 
tenuit is a single long, whip-like object, each anten- 
uule is forked so that there seems to be a pair on 
each side. 

Looking now a little below the antennaj in front 
part of head-thorax and working toward the under 
side of the body. Figs. 2, 3, we find a pair of hard, 
tooth-like nippers, opening from side to side and 
touching when shut. These cut the food and are 
the Jaics or mandibles. Between them is the 



mouth. Under them are two pairs of thin flaps 
lying close together which help the mandibles in 
preparing the food ; they are the lesser jaws or 
ma.dllaj. Below tiiese we find three pairs of or- 
gans which, especially the last pair — look a little 
like feet and yet also help in eating. They are 
the jaw feet or maxillipeds. (All these parts, man- 
dibles to maxillipeds, are so closely laid against 
the body and so overlap that it is perhaps easier 
to examine them in reverse order beginning with 
the maxillipeds'). Now we are quite on the under 
side of the body and have before us a pair of 
jointed limbs to which the gr-jab claws or pincers 
{chela:) are attached. Following these are four 
more pairs much like those just described, yet 
each succeeding i)air differing more and more 
from the first, but all plainly intended for walk- 
ing, that is, all iHit the first, which liearing tlie 
great claws is rather a pair of weajwns than feet, 
but all five pairs are connnonly called walking- 
feet. 

Lifting up the overlapping edge of each side of 
the cephalo-thorax we find attached to the bases 
of the legs a series of light-colored feathery parts 
each consisting of a stem and fringe of soft 
material. These are the hrealhimj-organs or gills. 

The lobster breathes air but he gets it out of 
the water. If you draw a tumbler of water and 
set it aside in a warm rooiu, in an hour or less 
you will see on the inside of the glass tiny bubbles 
of air which have come from the water. All 
water naturally contains some air. A great many 
animals that live in water breathe by means of 
gills. Perhaps you know of some. 

Abdomen. — Examining the abdomen we 
find it maile up of six quite similar ring-like pieces 
or 'segments, and a differently shaped end piece 
called the telson. On the under side of the 
abdomen each ring bears a pair of flatfish ap- 
pendages used in swimming. These are the 



4r, 



MODERN METHODS. 




MODERN METHODS. 



Mandate' ■ a\ 







.^nienruiU/ 

Antenna/ 



Grzerv OioTi^ 



cammisTurt *^ 
..GuUet- 
J?ph^U2imic Artery- 



CardLoj:. Ossicle, " 
. . . Pylori dnrieumfof 



Start 



SUmoL ArUry 



Vas Defertnj 



oo. 
TV) 



Superior Ahd/jmxnaX^ ' 

Artcy -^ 



Int^stxfi£' 



In/iriar AbdamznaL 
Ari£ry 



' ^hdomzTial, qanqbjx, 



48 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



swim III iiu/-Jh'/ or siriinmerets. Tlif lat-t pair of 
swimmerets is imicli larger aud broader than any 
of tlie otiiers, and cucli consists of two flaps wliich 
can be spread so as to form with tlie telson, a 
fan-shaped "tail-fin" with which the lobster can 
swim very swiftly backwards. ( Fis. '■'<)■ 



aiteitrtule 




An Una a 





I 












2 


Segments 




r^^ 


"/ ■ 




iT^j 


^J<<iQmfn 




y > I 





Internal Structure. — Some other cnrions 
things about the lobster you may like to know. 
The food torn by tlie iaws goes froui the mouth 
through a sliort tube into the xtoiiuirh. which is a 
soft bag stretched over a li.-inl frame and contains 
teeth — xfomiicli or i/nstrir-tccl/i. "\'ou can readily 
find the stomach as it takes up the larger part of 
the forward end of the cejjhalo-tliorax. (See Fig. 
■2). It is often calle<l the " lady." 

Tile Jiriiii lies inside the back along \]]v middle 
line of tl'.e head-thorax, au<l foices the nearly ' 
foA(,'-/c.s'N li/iii)(l to dilferent jiarts. The blood is' 
gathered up along the under side of tlie body, and 
after passing through the gills, returns to the 
heart. A constant supply of water is uuide to 



wash the gills, partly l>y tlie motion of a little 
scoop, the gill-hiiihr, partly by the movements of 
the walking-feet to which we found the gilb 
attached. 

The Kor is a little jiit at the base of the an- 
tennules. 

As the body of our lobster is composed of 
jointed pieces it belongs to the group of animals 
called Articulates, or, more commonly now be- 
cause it also has jointed limbs. Arthropods or Ar- 
tliropoda. As head and thorax are united and 
the whole outside is a hard crust it belongs to that 
division of Arthropods known as Crustacea or 
Crustaceans. 

Where Found. — The lobster lives in the 
ocean near the <-oa>t. iireferring rocky bottom, but 
also found where it is sandy or gravellj'. Our 
lolister is conmiou on the ^Vtlantic coast from New 
.Jersey nortliwanl. 

Habits. — Tile lol)ster vmv swim rapidly back- 
wards or forwards, and can also walk and climb 
under water. It eats other animals alive and 
dead, that is, it is caruivorons. When a limb is 
lost by acciilent another grows in its place. Lob- 
sters hatch from eggs, which are little globular 
bodies, nearly l)lack. and about as large as cab- 
l)age seeds, and which are attached in great nnm- 
bers to the swimmerets of the mother chiefly in 
spring and early summer. As the lobster grows 
his hard coat gets too small for him, so at a cer- 
tain time in warm weather the body loosens itself 
from its covernig, this splits along the back, and 
the lobster jiulls himself oat. He has 'ninuUed. 
(What other animals moult?) The lobster is now 
soft, and to escapi' his enemies, who would be 
glad of such a tender morsi'l, he goes into hiding 
till his outside has again hardened, lie moults 
often at first, liut only onci' a year after he is 
full-giouu. 

Kinds of Lobsters. — There are many dif- 
ferent kinds of lol>ster-like animals most of which 
live in the sea, but one sort lives in some rivers 
and lakes. This is the fresh water-lobster, craw- 
fish or cray-lish, sometimes wrongly called crab. 

— F. W Staebner. 



MODERN METHODS. 



49 








Fig. -2.— you.ng-crab. 



Fig. 5.— SPIIIEK-CRAB. 




Fig. 3 — thornback-cuau. 




Fig. 1.— edible crab of euroi'h. 



Fig. 4.— common.crab. 



50 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



KOTES OFLEfi.'iOy OX 



THE CRAB. -II 




HK (.'rnh at first sight looks very 
•' ■*, unlike a lolister. Holding it as in 
Fig. 1 . we note that it is short- and 
flattened, that its color is a dai'k 
green or bluish-green, and trying it with 
a thnndi-nail we lind it hard outside. 
All the uiijier siile is rt'iilitilo-tlionix. 
Turn till' crali over. Tightly pressed against the 
iiody, in a gi'oove in which it snugly fits, is a 
jointed tlap. ruUiug it out you lind it fastened 
at its broader enil to the ce])iialo-thorax. This is 
the (ihih'ineii ; count the number of pieces of which 
it t'onsists. Then see how many of the following 
jiarts VdU can lind. 

l>air of st!ill<e(I rvcs 
•■ •aillcllll\llr> 
" autcinue 
■- luaiidililus 
MUixill;e 
maxilli]irils 
liincevs 
waltiinu-feet J 

swiiini]ercl> uttaelu'il tii iilicloiiicii. 



-' pau's 
■A ■■ 

pair 
4 pair> 



attaclied t(j cejilialo-thorax. 



We find thecrali, although a]>])areutiY so differ- 
ent, on the whole very much like the lobster. 
Animals that ai'e like oiU' anotliei' in structure we 
put together ; those most alike being placed nearest 
together. This is called classifying. "\Ve have 
already classified the lobster. The ci'ab, lieing 
like it in liaving the body ma<le uji of jointed 
pieces to which are fastened jointed ajipendages 
belongs to the same group Aiihr<>jio<lt(, and because 
of its hard outer crust to the same division Cni.s- 
tan'u* The lobster and crab lioth having ten 
walking-feet belong to tlie same division of the 
C'l-ustaeea, the DecKpod, or ti'ii-Jhoted Crustaceans 
Again, because of its seemingly shorter abdomen or 



* The possession of tlie liai'rt outer crust is not sufficient 
alone to distinguisli Crustaceans since otlier Artliropotls often 
liave the outside of the body hard. Crustaceans must also 
have more than four pairs of locomotive organs, and two 
pairs ol atienna-. and tlifii there are exceptions. 



•• tail," the crab and others like it are called Short- 
liiiled decapod cructaceans, while the lobster is put 
with the Lo)ttj-t( tiled division. 

You must not suppose it is always easy to clas- 
sify animals. Some crabs, for eiaiinple, you might 
not know whether to call long-tailed or short-tailed. 
In such cases the naturalist uses his iudgmentand 
puts them with those they most resemlile in other 
resi)ects. If yon were told to take all the books 
lout of a case and put the large ones in one pile and 
all the small ones in another, you might meet with 
some about which you would find it diflicult to 
decide whether they ought to be called large or 
small, so you would have to use your judgment and 
put them with the pile they most resembled. Some 
one else might not agree with vou in placing the 
doubtful books where you did. So small differen- 
ces in animals bother naturalists veiy much, and 
they try to overcome the ditiiculty by proposing 
other arrangements, and this is one reason why 
yi)U find such different classifications in different 
books. 

Where Found. — Crabs are found mainly in 
the sea, in shallnw water, but some live in fresh 
w-ater and some, in the wanner regions of the 
globe, entirely on land. These latter, however, 
visit the water to lay their eggs. 

Habits of Crabs. — Some crabs swim well, 
others jioorly, but all can walk backward, forward 
or sideways, often very rapidl\\ Some climb 
well. Most crabs, perhaps all, eat animal matter 
of some sort, either attacking living animals or 
feeding on carrion ; some eat mainly vegetable 
substances. Crabs, like lobsters, have the power 
of growing a new limb if one should be lost in any 
way. Cralis hatch from eggs which are carried 
on the swimmerets of the mother. 

The young are at first very unlike the old, so 
unlike that some of them iiave been described as 
different animals. Animals which pass through 



MODERN METHODS. 



51 




Fig. R.— cocoanut-crab- 



FlG. 7. — ilKKMIT <'K,\K 





Fig. S._aOR.SE-^^H0E■CRAB. 



Fig. 9.— THE HORSE-SHOE-CRAB, UNDER SORFACE 
SHOWING .IAW3. 



5-2 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



great changes in form to reach tlie adult state are 
said to imdergo a lucldinnrphosis. Many creatures 
besides crabs do this. Can you thiulv of any? 
During growtli eralis moult several times, becom- 
ing each time more like the full-grown animal. 
The edible crab (Fig. 1) just after shedding his 
crust is sold as a delicacy in summer under the 
name of "soft-shell" or •• shedder-crab." The 
illustration shows the edible crab of Europe ; the 
American edible crab is essentially a swimmer and 
has the hiudermost pair of feet flattened. At 
one stage of growth crabs resemble lobsters. 
(Fig. 2). 

Kinds of Crabs. — There are many kinds of 
crabs ; some are only a fraction of an inch across, 
and from this they vary to tliose which, with legs 
spread, cover a sjjace of more than a yard square. 
One Japanese crab measures over ten feet between 
the outspread pincers, but the Ijody is relatively 
small. One of the smallest is the little Pea-crab 
or Oyster-crab often foinid in oysters within whose 
shell it lives. A curious crab is the Fiddler-crab, 
whose right pincei' is very much larger than the 
other, and when this is closed upon the front of the 
body he appears a little like a violinist ready to 
perform on his fiddle. He is also called Soldier crab 
and "■ Calling-crab," the latter, because when scutt- 
ling over the mud he waves his great claw aloft as 
if calling or beckoning to some one. Another 
interesting fellow is the Hei-mit-crab (Fig. 7) who, 
having only the ceiihalo-thorax hard, protects his 
al.idomen by " backing " into an empty snail shell, 
leaving only his antenna', big claws and first pairs 
of feet sticking out. ^Vlu■n lie outgrows his house 
which he carries anjund with him, he leaves it and 
hunts uii another. Stranger still is the so-called 
Horse-shoe (Figs, .s and 'J ) or King-crab, eomnion 
on our Atlantic coast, which, however, is n(jt really 
a crab at all. 

There are some queer crabs with long thin legs 
known as spider crabs. (Fig. .") ) . They have a 
iemarkal)le habit of getting under a sponge, forc- 
ing it ojien, and so getting it fixed u[)on their 
spiny backs. (){ course the tish that saw a loose 
sponge rolling along towards it would never dream 



there was danger in it ; but so it is, and the spider- 
crab gets a meal without much trouble. 

Somewhat similar to the spider-crab is the thorn- 
back (Fig. 3) whose shell is thickly covered with 
spines and knobs of various sizes. 

It used to be stated that the cocoaunt-cral) (Fig. 
(!) was in the habit of climbing the cocoanut palms, 
picking the fruit, throwing it to the ground, and 
then hreaking the shells to get at the kernels. The 
climbing powers of this crab, however, do not ap- 
pear to have been oliserved liy any reliable person. 
You have sometimes seen in fruiterers'shops the 
cocoanut with its thick, fibrous overcoat on — of 
the suljstance of which cocoanut matting and door- 
mats are made. The cocoanut-crab tears this fibre 
off the fallen fruit, and gets to the end of the nut, 
where are the three smooth jiits, the ^ mon- 
key's eyes and ikjsc." This crab has two pairs of 
' ])incers — the usual heavy pair and a thin small 
pair. With his heavy claws he hammers at one of 
the ■' monkey's eyes " until he has broken it 
' through ; he then inserts one of the small nij)])ers, 
I and extracts a portion of the cocoanut flesh, wiiich 
he cats. And so he becomes fat and enticing food 
for the natives, who set out in jjarties to hunt him. 

Besides feasting so daintily, tlie cocoanut-crab 
likes to take his rest cosily ; so he digs out a deep 
cave beneath the roots of a tree, and in it he lays 
a thick, soft bed of the finest cc^coanut-fibres, care- 
fully selected, on which he reposes. 

There are other land-crabs beside the cocoanut- 
crab. There is one in the West Intlies, who makes 
his home ciiiefly in the forests far inland, living in 
holes. In the rainy season this species iiuit their 
holes and getting in enormous companies make their 
way straight for the shore. Nothing but broad 
rivers can stop them, and they do a vast amount of 
damage on the way. 

Uses.-- Have you ever eaten lobster or crab? 
Then you know what some crustaceans are good 
for, and will not be surprised to hear that thous- 
ands of people in the United vStates are busy catch- 
inir, iirejiaring and selling these creatures. If 
your home is in Boston or New York, or some 



MODKHX MpyrHODS. 



53 



other city oear the Atlantic, you ma}' also have 
■seen in the fish markets shrimps, which are relatives 
of the lobster and cral). 

Crustaceans are also useful by acting as scaven- 
gers. How? 

How Captured? — Crabs and lobsters are 
caught in trajis, which are arched cages made of 
netting strengthened with hoops of wood or iron 
and having an opening on eacii of two sides. These 
are called " lobster-pots." They are baited with 
■dead fish and sunk in the proper places, their posi- 
tion being marked bj' a float. The crustacean 
easily gets into these traps, but not out. 

Suggestions and Notes. — In teaching this, 
as in teaching all lessons, tell as little as possible. 
Dntv: out by judicious questioning. For example, 
in beginning do not tell the color, the pupil ought 
to be able to tell you. So with every other point. 
Tell only such facts as the pupils do not know and 
cannot readily lind out. When you come to the 
crab have the pupils in the same way see and fell 
jou the various parts from the specimen, if you 
have such (and you ought to have at least one) or 
from a drawing previously made. Make a list of 
these on tlie board side by side with those of the 
lobster, and then, with this before them, ask the 
pupils whether on the whole the cral) is like or 
unlike the lobster. Then you can ask for the 
points in which it differs, or saying nothing about 
these, let tliem form a subject for composition — 
" Howthe Crab differs from the Lobster" or " Why 
the Crab isn't a Lobster." Of course the less 
obvious parts you will omit with younger jiupils. 
The amount that is taught is of less account than 
the way in which it is tauglit. A c<)mplete com- 
parative list would be something as follows : 

THE LOBSTER. THE CRAB. 

Color, dark jjreeinsh. dark yrceiiish. 

General form, long, cyfindrical. l)road, liattisli. 

Main f lifad-tlioraxorceplialo- ceplialo-tliorax. 

Parts 1 ^'""'•i-'^- 

(. abdonu^n (7 pifCfs). alidomeu (7 pieces). 



Other 
Parts. 



THE LOBSTER. 

pair stalked eyes. 
•' anteunules. 
•■ antenna" 
" mandibles. 
2 pairs nlaxilla^ 



THE CRAB. 

pair stalked eyes. 
" antennules. 
" antennjB. 
" mandibles. 
2 pairs maxilla;. 



3 " jaw f eet or uiaxillipeds 3 " maxillipeds. 

pairpincers. pair pincers. 

4 pairs walkius; feet. i pairs feet, 

r> " swimming-feet or fi '■ swiramerets. 
swimmerets . 



If you live within a hundred miles of the Atlan- 
tic you will know where to get specimens of lob- 
sters and crabs. If you live farther off you can, 
probably, at times, get boiled lobsters, and ))y 
leaving a special order at your fish-market get 
fresh specimens. If crayfish are accessible use 
these, and bj' all means have some alive in a jar of 
water ; put in with them some of the little snails 
found where you get the crayfish and they will 
serve as food for the latter. Your boys will lie 
glad to catch all these for you. 

Appended are a few subjects for composition ; 
these will suggest others to you. If you have 
given the previous lessons in this series make this 
work comparative as much as possible. 

1. Describe a lobster — size, color, number and 
shapes of legs, form, size and names of other parts; 
anything else you can see. 

2. l)escril)e a crab in the same way. 

3. Describe the different tilings a lobster can do, 
what.he eats, where he is fonnd, what he is good for 
and how he is caught. 

4. Combine 1 and o and tell all yon know al)out the 
lobster. 

."). Write a complete description of the crali. 

li. Compare the lobster and the ci'ab. mentioning 
first the points in which they are alike, then those in 
which they ditfer. 

Tlie teacher will hud further iufonuation in the 
following books: Huxley, T/iv Crayjixli ; Ency- 
cloptedia Britaunica, articles Orustacea., Crab; 
Science Guide No. VIL, Boston Soc. Natural His- 
tory, Wor)H!< and Crustacea ; Scribner's Monthly, 
June, 1.S81 (Vol 22, p. 201)), The Lobster at 
IIiiiii(\ an entertaining account of the industrial 
side of the subject. 



54 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



Ma ndlhles 



Mat ilia ly Pa Ipi. 



.Antr n 




IKSECT, S1«>«ING PARTS. 



.Y(r/7;s' ')/•' /.A'.s'.s'o.v oy 



INSECTS. 



(This lesson should be illiastrated Avilli ilianriuiis :uul 
with specimen if possible). 

I— Why So Called. The Chief Organs. 

— Show from the ilhistnition or t;[)e(;iiueii that the | 
lioily appears to be rnt-hito in two places, giving 
Uiree natural divisions to tlie body. Hence the 
name insect — cnl-iiitd. 

Tlie /lead carries the niniilh a])paratus, the ryes 
and the fceh'i's. 

The i-liest (or thorax) carries tlirce puirx of legs 
below and tiro pairs of wings above. 

The bodi/ (or abdomen) sometimes carries a 



sliiitj: and sometimes a special organ for boring., 
and then rimr/'iiiiiij i-(ji/s into the holes. 

II. — Segments and Joints. — C all attention 
to the rings of the body. Insects belong to the 
great sii))division of the boneless animals, which 
have the skin divided into rings or segments. In- 
sects usually have iiiw: segments in tlie body, and 
three in the chest and the head forms one piece. 
But all these segments are not always distin- 
guishable except with the aid of a magnifying 
glass. They niay, however, be clearly seen in the 
caterpillar, and the body segments are fairly dis- 



MODERN METHODS. 



55 



tinet in most butterflies, moths, ants, bees, and 
flies. 

The segments are formed of hardened skin, but 
the slvin between the segments and which connects 
them is not hardened ; it is pliant, tough, and 
elastic, and answers the purpose of ball-and-socket- 
joints. The segments themselves are uot perfect 
rings. Each consists of two half-bands — an 
upper and a lower — joined by the pliant, elastic 
skin. This arrangement gives considerable free- 
dom of movement. (See Fig.) 

III. — The Head. — The head carries the 
apparatus of the mouth, the eyes, and the feelers. 
The structure of the month varies of course with 
the kind of food on which the insect feeds, but in 
oue particular they all agree : when jaws are pres- 
ent they always open sideways, aud not up and 
dowu like our own. There may be several pairs 
of jaws one behind the other ; some are formed 
for cutting aud tearing, others for crushing, and 
some have the edges toothed like a saw. Some 
insects have truuks instead of j.aws through which 
they suck juices — it may be nectar of flowers, or 
the blood of other animals. 

The eyes are not single like those of vertebrate 
animals ; but each eye consists of a large bunch of 
very small eyes. Each eye may thus be made up of 
thousands of small eyes. They usually stand well 
out from the head so that the insect may see in every 
direction — above, below, beside, before, behind. 

The feelers, oue on either side of the head, are 
of various forms, shapes and sizes. That tliey 
are of great service to the insect, is quite certain, 
for the animal cannot live long without them ; but 
of their exact use we are ignorant. They may be 
organs of feeling, sense or hearing. 

IV. — The Chest. — The chest carries the 
legs and in'mjs. The legs are alwavs six in num- 
ber. The iriiigs are usually two jiaifs. Very 
often, as in the beetles, the front pair are hardened, 
and used to protect the second pair, and uot for 
(light. In some of the flies the second pair is 
wanting, but their place is marked by two little 
stalks with kuohs at the ends. Bulnneers they 
have been called, because it seems they act as 



balancers during flight, aud the insect cannot fly 
without them. In a few insects the wings are 
entirely wanting. Some of the ants shed their 
wings after a certain period. 

V. — The Body. — The segments are usually 
distiuct in the body. In those insects whose front 
pair of hardened wings covers the upper surface 
of the body, the segments are solid below only and 
not above. The wing-cases, in fact, do the duty 
of the hardened skin. 

A close examination between the segments, and 
between the upper and lower half of the same seg- 
ments, will discover a number of small holes on 
either side ; these are the ends of fine tubes, which 
communicate with two larger trunks running along 
each side of the body. From these main tubes 
other and smaller tubes branch off, and these again 
send off smaller tubes which traverse every part 
of the body. These tubes are prevented from 
collapsing, or falling together, by a kind of elastic 
spring coiled up closely between the two membranes 
of which the tubes are built up. These tubes are 
the breathing organs of the insect. It has no pro- 
vision by which the blood is brought to one par- 
ticular part for cleansing, and so the air is taken 
to the blood-vessels in every part of the body. 
By this beautiful arrangement not only is the 
insect endowed in proportion to its size with life, 
vitality and strength beyond all other animals ; 
but its weight is reduced to the extreme limit. 

I. — Kinds of Insects. — The teacher may 
ask for the names of insects, and make a rough 
classification. 

Insects are usually grouped according to the 
structure, arraugement aud number of the wings. 
The following may be taken as types of the chief 
groups, and the attention of the children should 
be drawn to the structure of the wings, either by 
drawings or specimens. Beetle, grasshopper, 
dragon-fly, bee, butterfly and house-fly. 

1. — Shield-Wixoed. — In the beetles, the first 
pair of wings are horny or leathery, in texture. 
They form a pair of folding shutters, aud serve as 
a shield to protect the second pair, which are- 
folded crosswise, and packed away beneath. The 



60 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



hinder pair are mucli larger than tlie front pair, and 
alone are used as organs of flight. Tliis group 
includes all the beetles, of which eighty thousand 
of different kinds have Iteen described. 

2. — Stkaight-Winged. — The grasshopper has 
wing-cases like the beetle, but they are thinner, and 
show a net-work of veins; and instead of folding 
straight down the back they nn'r-hiji. Tiie liind 
wings are folded lengthwise, and fitrai'jl/t like a 
fan ; hence the members of this grouii, wliicii in- 
clniles cockroaches, crickets and locusts, are 
calhMl straii/hl-iruKjeil. 

;i. — LACK-Wix<iKi>. — 'I'he wings of tiic l)eanti- 
ful dragon-fly are all used for the puriiose of 
flight. Tliey are transparent, and so full of veins 
that they look like delicate lace, hence the name 
lure-ii-liiijciL The May-flies, wliich live but for 
one day, and the nhili' ants lielong to tliis group. 
The dragon-tly can tly backwards as well forwards, 
and witli liglitning-like speed. 

4. — ]\[KMi!iiANK-WiN(;Ki>. — Tiie liee, like tiie 
dragon-tiy. has four transparent wings ; but the 
veins ale niucii less numerous. The mime is 
not a gciiid one, because all wings are nuMii- 
lu:iu()us ; but there is no dillieully in distinguish- 
ing members of tlie group liecause tile liinder (lair 
of wings are fastened to the front pair l>y little 
hooks al(.>ng the edge. liees, wasps, ants, :uul 
saw-tlies are nii'iiihraiir-ii'liiiji'ih 

T). — SiAi.K-\ViN(i|..i). — ']"he buttri'liies and luotlis 
arc distinguished by having tlicir wings cdN-eied 
with beautiful scales, and lifuce are called srali- 
'ir'niiji'tl. M'lien liaiidled the scales aiUieietii the 
lingers as dust : Imt under the mieroseope they 
are lieautifid olijcets. 

(i. — Twii-\\'iN<iKii. — 'l"he gnats, tluMMunmon tly, 
and many (itliertlies have twD wings. hence the nana'. 

II. — Benefits derived from Insects. — 

Insects are small, ami as an ai'ticle of tood for 
man of not nnn-li importance : but as a diet for 
liats, birds, frogs, toads, etc., they are of incalcu- 
lable l)enetit. 

The larva' of beetles, and the cateri)illars of 
butterflies an<l moths, are eaten with nmcli relish 
in sam(^ parts of the world. Locusts have formed 



an article of diet in North Africa from tmie im- 
memorial, and white ants furnish an abundant 
su])ply of food for the Hottentots of South Africa. 
Bees provide us with honey and wax, and silk- 
worms with silk. The cochineal insect yields a 
fine scarlet dye, and to the gall-fly we are indebted 
for the chief ingredient in the manufacture of 
black ink. Some insects also act as scavengers, 
removing decaying animal matter which would 
otherwise taint the air ; and the}' act as checks on 
themselves, one species preying upon another, and 
thus preventing its too rapid increase. 

III. — Injuries Caused by Insects. — 
Some insects cause us annoyance rather than in- 
jury, the common house-fly, for example; others, 
like the mosquito and gad-fly, are nothing less 
than tormentors ; but some there are which in their 
vast numbers become veritalile scourges. 

INSECT AND SPIDER (a comparison). 
nUistr.ate li_\- iliaj?ram> aiut jiictui'etJ. 



INSECT. 

a. /.'"'/// ceii.^ists of tlu'et^ 
parts. 

b. ^''iiiuiils, (listinguisli- 
alMu. 

c. Siiii haril, except be- 
tweeii tlie sc^inents. 
Cast only in tlie liirva 
stufie. 

d. I.eijs. Three i>airs, 
eauli made up of jirf 
pieces; clawy at eiui. 

e. Whigs. Two pau'e, of 
^■lucli (»ne pair, oi- 
liotli pairs Jiia>' lie 
wantiiii; . 

f. I-'t'vlvrs. oiLe pair : "v'ary 
vei'v iiiueh 111 form. 
I'robably used for feel- 



g. Spiinu'ii;/ apiiarutus, 

liiuiid in some insects, 
especially catipillars. 
Thread passed out 
tlirough mouth, ami 
hole 111 lij). Spin co- 
coons ill which to live, 
or pass from larvaj to 
inipa state, or thence to 
the perfect insect. 

h. /■-'.'/<'■''' compound, apaii", 
each containing a lar^e 
numlier of simple eyes. 

j, Jirarthhig apparatus con. 
sists of tubes luuning 
throughout the body. 



SPIDER. 

a. /•'»'/'/ consists of two 
parts. {Head and tho- 
rax form one part.) 

b. Sir/meiit not distinguish- 
able. 

c. Slin soft and leathery. 
cast at irregular inter, 
vals during life. 

d. Leffs. Four pairs, each 
made up of sci^ett pieces; 
(thigh, and leg each two 
pieces) ; claws at end. 

e. in)ii7S never present. 



f. /■'(•('/er.s', clianged into a 

formidable ji.air oI 
jaws. Kach consists ol 
"two pieces, of which 
the outer is claw-like 
and capable of being- 
folded back into a 
groove ot tlie otlier. 
Canal throughout con. 
nccting with poisou 
gbunl. 

g. Sj'iintiiKj api>aratus pos- 
sessed ' by ail spider's. 
Stiinnerets on under 
surface of body near 
the end. Spinscocoons 
as egg-cases, also webs 
as traps, or habita- 
tions. 



, K;ic^ simjile, and vary- 
ing in number troni one 
to .s/.r pairs. 

Ilreiithhir/ apparatus lit- 
tle sacs opening on tlie 
under surface of the 
body towards the front. 
A few have air-tubes 
also. 



INFORMATION LP:SSONvS. 



NOTES OF LKSSON OX 

SILK. 



PRIMARY GRADE. 



I. Silk. 

II. The Silk-worm. 

f not a worm 
(I. Kind of Animal ■! but 

( an insect. 
6. Where found. 

T, , J. ( The raulberrv 

c. Food of ^ Q^^„^ ^^^^^-^ 

d. Elaboration of the silk and the spinning of 

the cocoon. 



asked to biiug to school on Mondaj' morning, a 
small article made of silk. Tlie table on which 
these were placed assumed a pyramidal form, and 
looked like a receiving ware-honse or curiosity 
shop. The collection, beginning with a vivid 
scarlet shawl, evidently "borrowed " from grand- 
mother's wardrobe, was a nniqne one as the fol- 
lowing list used for spelling lesson will show : 



III. How Silk is obtained from the 
Cocoon. 

■ floss-silk 
Kinds of \ spun-silk 



raw-silk 



IV. Sericulture. 



cvshhin 
satin shdc. 
ijduse veil 
ijUi rp 



iniltcn 
ribbons 
stdcHiif/ 
]Kn'(tS(>l 



ri'Jvcf, necktie 
scarf 
thread 
crape veil 



a. Development of the industry. 



Rearing of the worm 



hatching 

feeding 

cleanliness 

diseases 

stiflinir 



After a little familiar conversation about use, 
color, material, etc., the words are spelled and 
attention is called to the picture of the silk-worm 
and cocoons, the pupils being encouraged to draw 
with the teacher. 



V 



Sericiilture in the United States. 

Silk should be cultivated on account of 
a. Our climate. 
6. Our manufactures. 
z. Our poor. 



Grade. — Fourth year in school. 

Awi-aije aije of pupils. — Nine years. 

Object of Lesson. — Information and Language. 



An object lesson suggested by legitimate school- 
woi-k usually proves both interesting and instruc- 
tive. Our class were delighted by reading JMiss 
•Tane Andrew's EacJt and All ; they were so inter- 
ested in their little sister Pense and lier work on 
the silk-farm that we knew just where to find the 
key-note for the next week's object lesson. 

In preparation for the lesson, each pupil was 




SILKWORM. 

We have a box, containing several cocoons, a 
skein of raw .silk and the large colored chart, but 
do not wish the children to use it until our subject 
is more their own. Fortunate are you, dear 
teachers, if you are not of that large class who 
" dread to sketch before the children." l>ut while 
the art of illustrative drawing is a most happy aid 
to the possessor, we may, anj^ and all of us suc- 
ceed in making the simple outlines necessary to 
strengthen, to vivify the mental picture. How- 
ever if j'ou have not courage to draw before the 
class, place your drawings on the black-board 
before school, and by some simple arrangement of 
wire and cambric, cover until you are ready to use. 
In every class there is at least one pupil ready to 



58 



MODERN METHODS. 



respond to the question ■ 
thing about this ? 



•AVhocau trll us souie- 




Our star (111 this occasion is a .lolni. Nothing 
BO deligiits Joiui as thf consciousness that he 
knoivs something about tlie topic presented by the 
lesson. He fairly beams as he tells us that the 
"little round thing " we liave <liawn is called a 
cocoon and the caterpillar made it. 

Teacher. — Yes, .Tohn, cocoon is the riaht name, 
but let us try to tiad another name for it. 

A flutter of haiuls, and Mary gives us rtisf, 
because it is all closed up." .\lice calls it a honsc, 
" because the caterpillar made it." 

Paul thinlis that he would call it a sIh-U, as it 
" looks like a peanut." 

This free and easy style of conversation is 
eDCOuragi'd among the children for the reason that 
too nuich fornuvlity tends to extinguish interest ; 
most of the terms are accepted and written on the 
black-board, tiie word cocoon heading tiie list in 
yellow crayon. 

Tcitrlii'i-. — • All tlic artich's tliat you brouijht 
to-day are made from thread spun bj- this insect, 
something like tlie caterpillar ; after it begins to 
spin, it makes a lionse of silken threads, winding 
the threads aronnd its l)ody until completely 
covered, and the covering we cull a — ? 

Class, — Cocoon. 

Tiiirher. — ■ .\fter working so liard it rests by 
going to sleep and slee]>s for about three weeks. 

Miihil. — I know what haiijiens while itis inthe 
little house. Itcliauges to a liutterfly. 
Ti'iichfr. — We will call it a moth. See, I will 
make a picture of one ; you may draw with me. 

The ciiildren, most of them familiar with the 
transformation of grub to butterfly, are eager now 
to relate their experience, and by question and 



an.swer we show the similar working of this insect. 
The drawings of cocoon and caterpillar are 
finished ; nearly a half hour has been given to the 
whole exercise, and tiie children are dismissed with 
unflagged interest, and the injunction to try to 
have something else to tell us to-morrow about 
silk-worms. 




It is encouraging to find, that while only a few 
have new facts about the silk-worm, all are ready 
to tell what was learned in the preceding exercise 
with a fair degree of accuracy. 

"You may begin the talk., children," says the 
teaclier. 

Evidently they arc (piite ready. Jark, whose 
brother is au academy pupil, is able to tell us 
that the silk-worm '■ eats an awful lot, and feeds 
only on the leaves of the mulberry tree." 

Miirij, who rejoices in several bound volumes 
of St. Nicliolas, has a fund of information. She 
tells us that" when tlie moth is ready to come 
out, it makes a hole in one end of the cocoon and 
cuts the silk thread so tliat it is no good." 

Tcaclii r. — Wliat is then done? Jack's eager 
tongue escapes its liounds; Ids " I km)W, Miss — 
I know " is excused and he is allowed to describe 
— in his own inimitable style — the placing of the 
cocoons in an oven in ord<'r to destroy the moth, 
the soaking in warm water, to soften the gum and 
unwind the silk. 

The information possessed by the children is 
supplemented by facts relative to culture, habits, 
and value of the silk-worm. 

As the lesson grows, the teacher puts, as they 
are used, the following words on the black-board; 

caterpillar. sUk-ivurm. woven. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



SO* 



miilberrtf 
hatched. 



spuming, 
soak'ed. 



insect, 
oven. 



In the afteruoou we have an exercise in gcog- 
aphy, referring to the map to locate China, 
(apan, France, Georgia and Connecticut. 

Incidental facts about climate, customs of the 
)eople, etc., are naturally brought out. Our box 
)f golden treasure is given the children, and they 
ire directed here and there in search of informa- 
;ion about this wonderful spinner. 

Having worked in this way for three or four 
lays we are ready to review. 

Pupils are called upon to give, in turn, a fact 
)f structure, habit or culture. 

While interrupting but seldom, we try to lead 
;hem to give the points in systematic order, some- 
iimes placing suggestive words on black-board to 
jring out desired information. 

The limits of this article allow but a few of the 
uteresting facts that the children are able to give 
ibout their friend the little silk-worm. 

Marij. — The silk-worm belongs to the insect 
tribe. 

Alice. — - It must have a warm place and it feeds 
on the leaves of the mulberry tree. 

Paul. — Silk is made in China, in France, and 
In parts of our own country. 

Edith, — I am going to have a silk dress when I 
am a big girl. (Important fact to her.) 

Maryaret. — The silk worm spins a cunning 
little house for itself. 

James. — The house is called a cocoon. 

Philip. — When people want the silk thread they 
must destroy the insect before it makes a hole in 
the cocoon. 

Arthnr. — Lots of things are made of silk. 

Teacher. — Name some of them, Frank. 

Frank. — Neck-ties, button-holes, veils and 
gloves. 

Amy. — The Chinese were the first people to 
make silk. 

Thus we get, by their ability to impart, a true 
;est of the work. 

We have gotten three spelling lessons, two les- 
sons in geography, four exei'cises in oral language, 
)ne in illustrative drawing, and an indefinite num- 
ber of reading lessons. We will sum up the week's 
(vork with an exercise in written language. This 



is to be a " surprise lesson." Friday morning 
each pupil is given a bit of bright colored silk cut 
in the form of a moth and requested to tell some- 
thing about it in a letter or short story. 

Some of the results may be shown by the fol- 
lowing — copied verbatim et literatim : — 



(Best). A DREAM. 

Last winter, I visited my grandma and on the old- 
fashioned bed there was a lovely silk-qnilt. I fell 
asleep counting the pieces. That niglit I dreamed that 
I was a little Chinese girl and my name was Lou Sing. 

We lived near a river and had a garden with many 
mulberry trees in it. My father raised silk-worms and 
my little brother helped me take care of them. Father 
put the silk skanes in a soft paper and took them to a 
silk merchant in the city. With the money he got, he 
bought many nice things and a beautiful sunshade for 
me. 

This was only a dream. In the morning grandma 
gave me some pieces of silk and I am going to make a 
silk bed quilt for myself. 

Edith ,(Age, nine years). 



(Ave}-ac/e) . 
Dear Mother : 

I have a piece of red silk and Miss , wants me to 

write something about it. I think this piece of silk 
came from France because that is a very warm coun- 
try. The little worm that spun the silk was not very- 
large, my teacher has some cocoons and a skein of 
silk thread. Sometimes a thousand feet of silk Is 
reeled from one cocoon and it takes four hundred 
cocoons to make one pound of silk. 

Willie , (.Vge, eight years). 



(Poorest), 

Silk don't grow on trees like cotton. A lintterfly 
lays some eggs and a little worm is hatched and spins 
a cocoon and we get the silk and out comes your butter- 
liy. J(dtii , (.Age, nine years). 



Our object lesson on the silk-worm is finished — 
the children have had a small portion of the 
marvellous structure and economy of these little 
insects — enough maybe to make some of them by 
and by enthusiasts in silk-culture and surely all 
of them are now able to read between the lines the 
Spanish proverb — " With patience and persever- 
ance the mulberry leaf will become satin." 

— L. M. Bagle:¥. 



«0 



MODERN IMETHODS. 





1/ 




Pig. 1— timothy. 



Fic. 2.— RED-TOP. 



Fig. S— sweft-scentei) vernal. 



Fig. 4.— sugar canb. 



Norr.K OF L/iSSOX o.v 



PLANT LIFE. 



I. Plants arc use-ful for 

Food, Slielter, and C'lotliiui;-. 
II. I'huits most iiscfnl to man arc 
Trees, Slirnbs, and llcrl)s. 

C nn'ado^v ijr'isses, 

ccrc.-ds. 

suL;ar-canc. 

baniljoo. 
pulse. 

cdil)le roots, leaves, stems, etc. 
cotton, tla.K. 

IV. Meadow urasscs. 



III. Heliis. 



a. Kind: 



r timothy. 
I red-top. 
' 1 sweet-scented ve: 
[ and others. 



rnal. 



I'ses of Meadow grasses. 

Food for domestic animals. 
To beautify our homes. 



HINTS. 

(I. That tinder matter nuist be uiven Ay the children 
them.selves. (.)nr aim is merely ti> put before you the 
material for a lesson in a way that shall suggest to yon 
ail easj' and eHective manuer of presenting it. Your 
work is, with the aid of jiictures and si)i'cimens, to 
make the class discover all that is stated, and put it 
into pure, clear English. 

/). Reiiiember that it is by doing, observing, and 
talking that children learn. In order to interest them 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



61 



in tlie coming lesson, and to prepare them for it, liave 
tliem, sometime previous to it, begin to malve a collec- 
tion for your table of the grains, pulse, etc., named. 
Small, wide-mouthed bottles are convenient for holding 
the specimens. At odd moments during the day, and 
It recesses, show the seeds of the cereals, and talk 
about them until the children can readily distinguish and 
name the oats, wheat, barley, etc. Have the class plant 
peas and beans in pots in the window, early enough to 
have them in blossom the day of tlie lesson, and sow a. 
little later some cereals and other grasses. (A school 
which has been doing this work has not only evinced 
great Interest in the growth of the plants, |but has 
enjoyed representing them upon the black-board. An 
excellent practice, because it makes the children sharp 
at observing dift'erences.) 

<■. When at last both children and plants are ready 
for the lesson, -have each child bring in a cross-section 
of wood, showing the softer part in the centre. (A 
piece of a young tree, or a rather small branch of an 
old one, is best.) Have him also provide himself with' 
a grass plant having roots and both old and new 
blades, also with one or two specimens of other 
herbs . 

Tile pictures can be drawn upon the black-board, or 
printed ones, pasted upon card board, can be given to 
eacli member of the class. 

Do not give too nuicli of the lesson at one time. Tlie 
interest of the children must not lie allowed to flag. It 
is better to stop too soon each day than not soon 
enough. 

il. Adapt your style of teaching to the class of chil- 
dren you are dealing with. In some schools such terms 
as structure, nutritious, vernal, can be used witliout 
explaiiatiou ; in others not. If you are among cliiklren 
tl.at are likely to become farmers, lead them to feel the 
importance of trying to tind out by experience and 
study, as they grow older, what the best grasses for 
cultivation are. 

If you are in a manufacturing village, and have 
among your pupils many of poor parentage, enlarge 
especially upon the beauty of grass. Encourage 
Patrick's going home through the streets where the 
prettiest lawns are kept, and let him tell you about 
them the next day. Give him a little grass seed to 
plant in his own door-yard, and some night after 
school walk home with iiim to see how it is growing. 
It will do you both good. 

e. Encourage the children in exccrcising care con- 
co-miiig the grass in the school-grounds. Let them 
trim the edges, rake up the leaves, enrich the soil, and 
crater it if necessary. 



I. — MATTER TO BE TAUGHT. 

The Ijread, potatoe.s, and other vegetaliles we 
have eaten to-day ; the coffee, tea, or chocolate 
we have drunk, have all come from plants. Our 
houses which shelter us from the heat, the cold 
and storms, are made partly or almost entirely of 
wood. Our handkerchiefs are made of linen, the 
fl'^re of the flax, and our aprons of cotton. "VVo 
see that plants are useful to man for food, shelter 
and clothing. 

II.— TREES, SHRUBS, HERBS. 

Look at a piece of a tree. On the outside you 
find the bar)--, next to the wood and in the centre 
a softer part called the pith. A plant having 
these parts and arranged in this way is said to 
have a woody structure. Look at grass, clover, 
and some other plants. You find they have not 
a woody structure. Ae warm weather comes on, 
all the little twigs and branches of the trees and 
bushes become covered with beautiful green 
leaves. The dry, withered stalks of the grass 
and clover will never grow green again ; new 
ones will be sent up from the root instead. That 
is because these plants died to the ground last 
fall. We see, then, some plants have a woody 
structure, and do not die to the ground as winter 
approaches, while others have not a woody struc- 
ture, and die to the ground annually. The first 
are trees and shrubs ; the last are called herbs. 
Usually a plant having a woody structure is calle*^ 
a tree if it is thirty or more than thirty feet lu 
height, and a shrub if it is less than thirty feet in 
height, but these distinctions do not always hold. 
The coffee and the chocolate tree are considerably 
less than thirty feet in height, and yet are always 
called trees. (The children will learn later that 
some trees, as the palm, do not have a woody 
structure.) 

III. -SPECIAL STUDY OF HERBS. 

Look at the grass and compare it with the clover 
of some other herb. Examine also the pictures, as 
they represent the plant when fully grown. We 



€2 



MODERN METHODS. 



see that there are four parts to tlie grass, — tlie 
roots, the stem, the blades or leaves, and tlie 
flower. The stem has joints, and is hollow except 
at these joints. At each joint there is one blade 
or leaf ; these leaves liave in them parallel veins. 
Notice how regularly the leaves are arranged, one 
on one side, then on the other, or ollcriiotcbj as we 
say. The tliird leaf comes aliove tlie first, the 
fourth above the second, and so on. Now look at 
the wheat, rye, etc. We see that they have the 
same arrangement or structure, while the clover 
has not. All herbs having the structure of grass 
are called grasses. 

Examine tlie peas and the Vieans. They have 
not the structure of grass. Their fruits grow in 
pods. Some other }ilants have llowers like those 
of the i)ea, and produce their fruits in po<ls. All 
tiiicli herbs are called ])ulse. 

Other herbs unlike grasses and pulse are useful 
for food. We eat tlie roots of such as the beet, 
turnip, etc. ; tlie stems of others, as the celery, 
asparagus ; the leaves of others, as the cabbage, 
lettuce, etc. Anything good to eat is said to be 
edible. Among the useful iierbs are deilile roots, 
stems, and leaves. Still other herbs, as cotton 
luid flax, are useful for clothing. (Cotton grows 
on trees, shrubs, and lierbs. ) The kinds cultivated 
^re shrubs and herbs. 

Kinds of Grasses. — All over our hillsidi's 
and meadows are grasses which grow well in our 
meadows, and are cultivated tliere. 'I'hev are 
called meadow-grasses. When corn, wheat, bar- 
ley, oats, etc., are coming up, tiicy look much 
like common grass. Examine them later, and 
yim will find they all have the structure of com- 
mon grass, so are grasses. (We have found that 
most of the grassi's have a hollow stem, the corn 
does not.) Tlie seeds of our wheat. Corn, ami 
rye arc ground into Hour, and used in making 
various kinds of bread. The people in northern 
Europe and Scotland grind the seeds of Iiarley 
and oats, and use the tlour for cakes and other 
kinds of bread. In China rice is made into bread. 
Anj' grass seed good for making bread is called a 



bread-corn. A grass which produces bread-corn 
is a cereal. 

Examine Fig. 4, which represents a piece of 
sugar-cane. You observe that this is also a 
grass. 

Turn to your geographies, and see if you can- 
not find a picture of a bamboo forest. Notice to 
what an immense height the bamboo grows. Some 
of it is as tall as our maples and elms are, and 
yet this dies to the ground and is therefore an 
herb, and it has the structure of grass, as you 
will see if you can obtain a liamboo fishing-pole. 
You have now learned that among the most useful 
grasses are meadow-grasses, cereals, sugar-cane, 
and bamboo. 



IV. —SPECIAL STUDY OF MEADOW- 
GRASSES. 

It may seem to you as if our meadovv-grassea 
are all alike, but study them a little and you will 
discover there are many kinds. We will notice three 
or four of the most valuable only. See Figs. 
1, 'J, 3. They all have the hollow, jointed stem, 
and the leaves arranged alternately, as we have 
liefore seen, but they are quite unlike in their 
roots and flowers. Fig. 1 re|iresents one of 
the raost common of our cultivated varieties. 
The root looks like a little bulb; and the flcvers 
grow on a long spike like a cylinder in siuipe. 
This kind is supposed to have been brought from 
Europe many years ago by a man named Timothj' 
Herd, and for this reason to be called timothy or 
herd's grass. The seed for this is cheap, and 
easily procuivil. The grass grows well, and the 
hay sells well in the cities, as most men lik'e it for 
their horses. For these reasons farmers jilant a 
great deal of it. Some men, however, tliiiik it is 
not quite so good for food, that is, not so nutri- 
tious, as some other kinds arr. 

Fig. 2 shows us another very valuable grass. 
The part that sends off the little roots seems to 
creep along the ground, and the flower stalk sends 
off many small branches. Hecanse this grass (s 
of a purplish color, it is called the red-to|i. In 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



63 



Peunsylvania tin's is calletl herd's grass. This 
does not ripen quite as quickly as timothy, but 
makes a rather heavier crop, especially on dry 
land. It is said to be more nutritious than the 
other, and cattle like it better. You have often 
seen farmers cutting a second cro|) of hay from 
their meadows ; this is rowen, or aftermath. The 
rowen crop of red-tof) is often not worth cutting. 
This is one reason farmers like timothy better. 

We have all noticed what a delightfully sweet 
odor there sometimes is in the air when the new- 
mown hay is lying in the fields. The baskets 
made by the Indian women often have the same 
fragrance. This comes from another kind of 
grass (see Fig. 3) , not quite so common as the 



first two. It is the sweet-scented vernal. The 
word vernal means si)riug. This lilossoms very 
early, as early as the last |)art of May in Massa- 
chusetts. AVe can always tell it by its fragrance. 

Use of Meadow-Grasses. — They are in- 
valuable to man as food for many of his domestic 
animals. Thousands and thousands of horses, 
sheep, and cows feed upon them. They are 
almost as valuable as the cereals upon which man 
so largely lives. 

Grasses are also useful in making our homes 

beautiful. The poorest, plainest house becomes 

pleasant to the eye if surrounded l>y a well-kept 

grass-plot. 

— Elvira Carver. 



yOTES OF LESSOX^ 0\ 



INDIAN CORN. 



^^^^^^EFORE proceeding to experiments in 
cooking any article of food, it is 
always well to show its connection 
with school studies. 




y^ri?^. This grain is chosen for si)ecial 

MtLi3» study as the one member of its family 
^I?j liest suited to our needs, since it is a native 
American. 

There are plenty of selections from jioetry and 
prose, that might ])rotitably occu[)y an hour of 
school, without touching upon its practical side. 

The subject may lie considered under these 
heads : 



(iliOWTU. 

Uses. 

CojiMEKciAL Value. 



History. 
Legends. 
Poetry. 



In studying food plants, children should early 
understand the division of plants into families, 
and learn to trace resemblances. 



t'ity children cannot readily comprehend this 
unless the teacher provides s|)ecimens ; but coun- 
try children can easily see in the early growth of 
wheat, corn, and other grains, their likeness to 
the grass family, of which they are inemliers. 

Bv mentioning sweet corn ami sorulium, and 
comparing the outlines of the two plants, it is 
easily shown that the sugar-cane is a near relative 
of maize. 

Sugar in large quantities has lieen extracted 
from some varieties of corn. The Itotanical name 
of corn is Zf-a Maijs — that of sugar-cane, Sac- 
charmn Officinarmn. 

The Growth of corn is in every respect remark- 
alily affected by climate and soil. All varieties 
grown in the United States are of one species and 
owe their peculiarities to circumstances. 

Considerable heat is necessary for its full 
development, as is shown liy the great height of 
the Southern varieties. 



64 



MODERN JIKTIIUDS. 



The ciilor of the kiTiU'ls ranges from wiiili' 
through Yfllow to dark red, and even purple ; the 
shape, from the tiny rice grains of the pop-corn to 
the long, sharp kinds of the South ;ind A\'est, and 
the wrinkled sweet kernels. A Kocky Mountain 
variety has a husk over each sepai'ate kernel. 

The kinds most valualile ai-e the stajile. Indian 
corn, the sweet, and last — l)ut far from least in 
the estimation of children — the pop-corn. 

The Uses are so mauv, it would require more 
space than we have here to give them all. 

It contains all the qu.alities needed to sustain 
life, in one of the cheapest forms, Init is too con- 
centrated except for people of active habits of life. 

The principal food of the Canary Islanders — a 
tine race [ihysically — is golio, a preparation of 
corn, parched liefore grinding. 

All dishes, in which cmn is the pi'iucipal ingre- 
dient, require long, steady cooking, and, perliMps, 
for this reason many of the old-time ilaiuties have 
fallen out of use, the Ameiicans heing in too 
great a hurry to stop to prepare tliciii. 

Ilulleil corn, nuish, hominy, brown liread, 
.loliuny or hoe cakes, Indian pudding, succotash 
— all of these. ;ind more, we owe to Zea Jfai/s. 

It is also converted into tiesh of animals, which 
furnishes uuich of our food. Not only is the ripe 
grain and meal of corn and Cob, groiuid together, 
given to auiuuils, but ensilage — [uepared b}' cut- 
ting thick sown corn when green, packing in a pit 
or silo, and covei'ing from tiie air — gives fresh 
food to cows and oxeu thi'ough the wintei'. 

The husks, dried, are used for mats, and tilling 
for beds and cusliions. The stalks mav furnish 
fuel, tliatch for I'oofs, or uniy be made into 
baskets. Pajier has been mamifactured from 
some portions. 

"Where fuel is scarce and the corn crop abun- 
ant. uiauy people have been kept warm liy 
.'urniug ears of co|-n. The cobs alone, oi- soaked 
in oil, are usefid for kindling. 

The counnercial value of the corn crop of this 
country is, perha|is, best iudicated liy statistics. 



The reports of the l". S. r)e])ai-tment of Agri- 
culture for ISiS-l gave the total yield as over 
1.7'.l.'>,0()0,000 bushels, produced by about 70,- 
OOO.OOO acres of land. 

The value of tliis crop was estimated at 
.SClO.ddO.OOO. 

The States standing first as corn producers are 
Iowa, Illinois, JMissouri, Kansas, Nel)raska. 

The canning of sweet corn and use of pop-corn 
by confectioners are also sources of considerable 
revenue to the farmers. 

The Ilisforff of corn is so h]terwo\'en in that of 
our country that any school histoiy nuist furnish 
s(.)me items; several will be found in ■•Our 
Falherhdid." 

The word corn, as used in the Bible, and as 
often now used in England, refers to any grain. 

Some have claimed to find maize near the 
ancient I'uins, and that it was represented in old 
Chinese books, but the weight of evidence is on 
the side that it was unknown in the old world 
until after the discovery of the new ; that is 
granted bv De C'andolle, one of the best authi>r- 
ities on botanical subjects. 

C'oluudius is said to have brought it to Spain 
about 1;")2(). The early settlers of America found 
maize growing in all parts of the country. 
Francis Bacon, in his Natural History, says, 
" Indian Maize hath an excellent spirit of nour- 
ishment ; but it must be thoroughly boyled. and 
made into a maize cream like a barley cream.'' 

Through the use of maize several Indian words 
have been added to our language, as hominy, 
sani[), succotash. 

The Ln/eiids connected with it are many. 

One Indian story tells where the good spirit 
tou<'hed the ground there sprang up, on one side, 
maize; on another, beans. 

Longfellow's '• Hiawatha '' is a combination of 
Indian traditions on the origin of corn, and sev- 
eral suitable extracts can be made for this exer- 
cise. Tlie Hfth and twelfth sections of the poem 
have most to do witli Mondamin. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



65 



XOTES OF LESSOX OX 



THE APPLE. 




[Black board sketch to be written as the words occur 
during the lesson. Such a sketch, for lessons, should be 
very plainly written, consist of few words, which should 
suggest the main points in the order in which taught.] 

^^P^NTEODUCTION. — Show an apple — 
its name ? What it is — fruit of a 
tree. Speak of size, form, color, 
etc. Its eommonness, often seen 
and liked; -vvliy? Let us tirst learn 
^^^ what the eije teaches about the outside. 
™ Its shape ? — round, somethinu; like a liall ; 
smooth: its color? — green, red, brown, yello>i\ 
The three P.a.rts, the apple ; at one end, a .s/cHi ,• 
its use? at the other, a small hunch of very little 
leaves, withered ; on some apples we may count 
fre, we may call it the eije. Number of parts? 
three. Names? — stem, apple, eye. AVhat does 
the hand tell about the apple? Feel it: smooth, 
Jicavij ; sijueeze it; we can't crush it as an oram/c, 
nor break it as an egc/, yet not hard as a stone or 
piece of irood. We call itjirm. It has a pleas- 
ant — .imell. 

Let us look now at the inside. {Cat the apple 
across, point out the severed piarts as named. 
Sketch the outline of the section on the hlaMiourd. ) 
We see rind, pulp, core, seeds, four parts. The 
rind, a thin slin. Cut off a piece — another 
word for this, p}ariiig. Use of rind? We may 
know this by seeing what happens when the rind 
is taken off. The pulp changes color, loses its 
nice taste, soon gets rotten ; the sldn keeps the 
apple sound and good — one word for this ? — 
preserve it. (2) The pulp is the part we eat. As 
we cut it, the knife is wet ; this is caused by juice. 
Taste it — sweet? sour? the pulp tastes like this, 
too ; how nice to eat! Inside the pulp (3) is the 
core, made of substance as thin as paper, but 
tough, leather-like, in small pieces, joined at 



edges, forms small, hollow )>hici's. Count them, 
there arejive ; (4) inside are the .seeds, one or tnrt 
in each little hollow. The rind, the p((?p, the 
core, all help to keej) safe, protect the seeds. 

(Revise by brisk qu.e.'itionlng. ) 

We must now learn what the apple comes from, 
or HOW IT oRiiws. The trees grow in this coun- 
try ; there are many ; the jjlace is ? — a garden, 
or many planted together, then called an? — 
orchard. Describe the pretty sight in spring, the 
yfhite flowers — blos.^oms, tipped with red, covering' 
the trees ; their (juick going away, falling like 
snowflakes. What is left? a little hard, green 
knob, where the blossom was : it grows larger, 
swelling, through tlie summer, into an apple. In 
autumn it ripens — the color changes; the pretty 
look then of the green^ or red, or golden-colored 
fruit. Tlie pleasant gathering; how the men 
reach them by ladders in the trees; the careful 
picking. ))acked in baskets, stored in the fruit- 
liouse, or sent to market, and solil in stores. 

The Use of the Apple. — Little cliildren 
soon learn this. They are nii-c to eat, and good 
for food. They help to make us strong and well. 
Some things we eat are jilensant Imt not good. 
Some things are good but not p)lcas(int. The 
apple is both, we call it wholesome. How are 
apples eaten? Sometimes raw, just as picked 
from the tree. When ripe, this is well. What 
otiier fruits are eaten in this waj' ? Sometimes 
cooked, how? Pies, rousted, preserres, etc. So 
many apples grow, and in so many parts, that 
they are sold for little money; tliey are? — cheap. 
So all people may have this nice and good fruit. 
Many are sent in ships from lands where they 
grow to other lands. 



CG 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



XOTFS OF LESI?OX OX 

THE POTATO. 




HE prolileiii — htnv to teach cooking in 

school — is being gradually worked 

,i\\ out ill .some of our larger cities, and 



the class of educators who iiiiist 
always ohjcct to any innovation, and 
can find no plea against this save that of 
ack of time, have been shown that theirs 
is not a valid excuse for omitting such instruc- 
tion. 

( )iie of the first results of the public cooking 
schools has been the Boston School Kitchen text- 
book, prepared by Blrs. D. A. Lincoln, which 
shoulil be in the hands of every teacher desiring 
to give such instruction, even in the simplest 
form. The principles that underlie all cookery are 
clearly and scientifically explained and the whole 
ground of ordinary cooking is covered bj' this 
little book. 

This paper, and others which may follow, are 
designed to hell) teachers who, without aiij' special 
utensils, wish to make a beginning in tliis line of 
work. 

From experience in uiigradc(l country schools, 
the writes knows that nuich of the instruction now 
given in the Boston Cooking School can lie adapted 
to the limited resources of the average district 
school-house. 

The country school-ma'am who boards around 
may have secret longings to improve the standard 
of the daily bread she siiares — though the very 
best is usually set liefore the teacher — but she 
needs to lie wise as a ser|ieiit in undertaking such 
a reform. Indeed it is doubtful whether she could 
do much for her own liniefit, but she may waken 
the ideas of the housekeepers and cooks of the 
next generation. 

Too often, New England fanners look at eggs, 
liutter and fruit as so much cash, on no account 
to lie usimI at home : and salt [lork and butter- 
milk liisc-uit appear on the table daily if not at 



every meal. More knowledge of the relative 
value of foods would show the farmers of the 
future that it would be money in their pockets to 
use more of their produce themselves. 

Another reason for such instruction is that 
cookery and housework have fallen into disrepute 
and need to be raised to a higher level, since few 
employments so affect our comfort and health. 
Change in public sentiment on this point will 
work many improvements in the wages of women 
liy influencing in favor of housework, liright girls 
wlio now prefer to go into stores or factories, or 
to attempt teaching ; over-crowding all branches 
and keeping wages down. 

The country teacher must proceed cautiously in 
introducing such an innovation on established 
methods. If she projiosed to teach cooking some 
town-father would say, " My gals can learii to 
cook at home better than that school niariii can 
teach 'em, that aint what she's there for." Or 
the mothers would take it as a reflection on their 
established reputations, and popular opinion would 
prejudice the scholars. 

Proliably the easiest way to begin would be by 
a series of talks on the every-d,ay articles of food 
— as the potato, corn and grains in general, etc. — ■ 
and with each lesson bring out all possible points, 
botany, chemistry, and physiology. 

Strive always to show tluat common things are 
uncommon, being governed by the foundation 
principles of science. 

The potato may form the basis for a talk on 
fire and water if desired, as in ]Mrs. Lincoln's text- 
book, but first give some time to the vegetable 
itself. 

As in any gener.al exercise suggest the topic to 
the school, asking each one to think of something 
to tell about the potato at such a time. A few 
may be disgusted at the choice of such a common 
vegetable for a school topic and think there is 



modp:rn methods. 



(■>7 



nothing oew to be learned about it ; but the 
majority of children are glad to tell auythiug they 
know and will happy to think there is a subject on 
which they can find something to say. 

Begin the exercise by appointing some one to 
write the principal points on the lilack-board. 

Divide the board after this manner and write 
as much under each head as there is room for. 
C Grorrfh 



The Potato 



-, Ili!<tori/ 
i Use 



Every country child should know something of 
the first topic, yet few will have noticed all the 
points to be mentioned viz., that the plant grows 
both from the tubers and seed, that a single eye 
will produce a new plant, that new varieties are 
obtained from the seed. 

Also that the part above ground is never used 
for food — as the best, etc. — that whenever any 
tubers come above the ground, tiiey grow green, 
like the stalks — this is the reason for hoeing pota- 
toes. Explain that the potato is a cousin to many 
poisonous plants of the uight-shade family. Some 
child may make the point that the tops of potatoes 
are food for certain bugs ; and this would give a 
chance to speak of the difference in the food of 
animals and insects and that of mankind. Trace 
the resemblance between the leaves and blossoms of 
potato and tomato, showing that they are relatives. 
Tell them that tobacco l)elongs to the same race 
of plants and is quite as unfit for man as potato 
tops, but is good to destroy vermin. Among city 
children we find many who know nothing of the 
season of growth and maturitj' of the potato — 
when they are new and when old potatoes. Ask 
whether all plants have tubers — whether they are 
the same as the beet, turnip, etc. Also ask of the 
characteristics of different varieties of the potato 
as the Chenango, Early Rose, etc. 

Then find out what the children know of its 
early home, etc. Make them feel proud that it is 
an American. 

Some will speak of Sir Walter Haleigh — tlien I 
ask if there is any other plant that he introduced | 



and which has been of most benefit to the world, — 
the potato or tobacco. 

There is some reason to .suppose that Sir Fran- 
cis Drake introduced the potato rather than Sir 
Walter Raleigh but it is quite possible that they 
both brought it to England about 158(>. At any 
rate in December, 188G, ter-centeuary of the 
potato was celebrated in Egland by a meeting at 
which scientific men read jjajjers and discussed the 
cultivation and value of the potato, etc. This 
fact would sliow the puiiils that they are not doing 
a foolish thing to give some time to the same sub- 
ject. 

There is one anecdote worth repeating to show 
how natural it is to expect to find fruits above 
ratiier than under ground. Sir Walter Raleigh's 
gardener had cultivated the plant carefully all 
summer and one day came bringing his master the 
green balls and asked if those paid for all his care 
and trouble. Sir Walter said " to pull up the 
plant and tiuow it away," well knowing what 
\\ould then be found. 

Tell how prejudiced the people were against the 
potato at first, that those who were sure it would 
prove a valuable food wore the flower and tried in 
every way to make the plant popular. Ask how 
it would seem not to see potatoes on the tal)le 
daily, now, and what would take its place. This 
would lead naturally to the third topic. 

Use. — It is principall}' used for food — what 
other foods is like it? Frol)ably some one has 
just said '' If we had not potatoes we should eat 
bread with our meat." Tlien potatoes would not 
take the ])hice of meat and we want either meat, 
milk, or butter with our potatoes. Let us find out 
what potatoes are made of. If you cut a potato 
and rub your finger over it how does it feel ? 
Wet of course. 

Then must there not be water in it? Next cut 
a potato in thin slices and leave in a pan of water, 
or do this the first of the lesson and now show the 
starch which has settled in the bottom of the pan. 
Explain that it is held in tiny cells and when these 
are cut it comes out ; that nuicli of the starch used 



OH 



TNF0RMATIO>' LESSONS. 



for lauiulvy ^oik conies from iiotatoos. Compare 
boiled starch with a boiled potato. (Mrs. Lin- 
coln's text-book explains this process clearly.) 
There are other things in tlie potato beside water 
and starch, in very small quantities, a little lime, 
etc., but it is nearly three parts water and one part 
starch. 

Ask what we havi' to do to a potato before 
eating, somebody will say eook it and somebody 
else suggests washing it. Find out which should 
be done first and why. 

Cut thin slices of a potato, let each child hold 
one up to the light and look at it and tell what she 
can see. Often the cellular structure can be 
shown in this way, and there is usually a distinct 
line near the skin showing how much nutriment is 
lost if too thickly pared. Leave some slices in 
water, and some exiiosed to the air to sliow how 
that acts upon the acrid juice, turning the potato 
(lark. 

If time permits, now, or when there are a few 
:iioments to spare, speak briefly on the nccil of 



cooking food at all, why potatoes alone would not 
nourish our bodies, etc. hi all these exercises 
leave as much as possible to the children ; let 
them ask and answer their own questions if possi- 
ble. 

Don't let the exercise have a cut and dried 
appearance, simply try to show the children that 
there is some connection between school and 
every-d;'.v life (though this is not always appar- 
ent in school routine). Teach them to use their 
eyes to see more in connnou things than tliey 
dreamed possible. 

Education is literally to draw out the child's own 
ideas and make him think for himself. 

The average country boy or girl find enough 
manual training at home and if taught to think for 
himself or herself, hi^ad and hand will work 
together. 

Bv calling thi'se food-talks we may interest 
I10VS as well as girls in subjects quite as impor- 
tant to tlieni. 

— .i .N > A UaSBOWS. 



NOTES OF LESSON O.V 

SUGAR. 



rUGAR of both kinds. I'icture of a 
sugarcane. A little sand and salt 
should be jjrovided, to be shown 
when referred to. 

I. Its Uses. — Speak first of the 
common an<l well-known uses of sugar. 
When used, where and why. It is put in 
tea and coffee, cakes, and boiled with fruit. 
What this is called? Preserves. Meaning of 
preserve. Why boiled fruit so called? Sweets — 
kinds, names, etc. Why we like it? tSiiiiar is 
used as food. It is nice to taste, and is good for 




food. Elicit iJint siir/ar is <(. jileasrinf and whole- 
some food. Let the children name all the ways in 
which sugar is used. 

II. Properties and Qualities of Sugar. 
— If not too young, and if it be practicable, give 
to each child, or group of children, a few grains 
of brown sugar and a small lump of white, on a 
slate or a piece of paper. Ask for the color of 
each, and how it looks. Sugar is sparlcUng and 
brown or white. Touch it. The brown sugar is 
sticky. Each little piece is hard ; they are like 
grains of sand. These are called grains of sugar. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



fil) 



Graiu means something small and hard, Ask for 
the names of things made up of grains. There are 
gtains of auc/ar, sand^ salt. Some small, hard 
seeds are called grains. Grains of rice, harle;/, ' 
v-heat, etc. Put a little sugar in water. What 
becomes of it? It melts. There is a Letter word 
than melts. What is it? Hold a lump of sugar 
over the flame. AVhat happens to it? It melt.t. 
Explain tlie difference. The melting of things in 
water is called dtnaolvhig it. Fire melts svgar ; 
water dis.tolves it. Look again at the water. What 
has become of the sugar? Why cannot we see it ? 
It is broken so small by the water that it cannot 
be seen. How do we know it is there ? Let a 
child taste it. In another glass of water put a few 
grains of salt, in a third a few grains of sand. 
Show that water dissolves sugar and salt, but not 
sanil. Elicit that .ingar w hroirn or irhite, xireet, 
in grainti, dissolves in water, etc. 

III. Where we get Sugar. — It is bought 
at the grocer's, but it comes fn^m Southern States, 
East and West Indies. It is got from a plant. 
B'lt from what part of it? It is neither the stem, 
£ior the leaf, nor the fruit, but is inthe./«/ce of the 
pl&fix;. Sugar is obtained from the juice of the 
sugar-cane. Show a piece or a picture, or the fol- 
lowing black-board sketch of the sugar-cane as 
growing. 

II. THE PICTURE EXAMINED. 

1. The Stem.— This 
is a picture of the sugar 
plant. Name its j)arts as 
1 point to them. 

Stem, leaves, flower. 

Look at the stem. What 
kind of a stem is it? 

It is a straight stem. 
Yes ; and it grows very 
tall. (The teacher shows 
hov/ high the stem of 12 
or 15 feet would reach in 
the school-room.) Point 
out the thickest part of the 
stem. Where is it thinnest ? 




At the top. 
It gets thinner little by little : what will you 
say of the stem ? 

It tapers. 
I will show you how wide the thickest part of 
the stem is. (The teacher draws a part of the 
tapering, notched t^tcm to full size, i.e., about two 
inches in diameter.) Does the stem seem to be 
all in one piece ? It is made up of Joints. Come 
and point out some of its joints. What springs 
out f ronr the joints ? 

Leaves. 
The stem is called the nine. It is hard outside, 
but the inside is soft and very full of juice. 
It is from this juice in the cane that sugar is 
made. 

2. The Leaves. — What do you observe 
about the number of the leaves ? 

There are very few leaves. 
What is their shape ? 

Long and narrow. 
Where do they spring from ? What other leaves 
do they remind you of ? 

Tlie leaves of wheat ; leaves of grass. 
The sugar plant with its tall, straight stem, and 
few long, hanging leaves, is very like grass. But 
its stem is solid, not hollow like the stems of grass 
and wheat and barley are. 

3, The Flowers.— What a beautiful bunch 
of flowers the sugar plant has ! Where are the 
flowers in the sugar plant ? 

At the top of stem. 

What is the shape of the bunch? (The teacher 
may draw a full-sized outline of the conical Bower- 
cluster on the black-board. It should be drawn 
about two feet in height. ) 



III.— HOW SUGAR IS MADE. 

The teacher may explain in simple terms the 
different processes. 

.1 . When the canes are ripe they arc cut aown, 
close to the ground, made into bundles, and passed 
through rollers wuich squeeze out all their juice. 



70 



MODERN METHODS. 



NOTES OF LESSOX OK 



SPICES. 



SPICES. 

I. 11-7/0/ the;/ arc. 

II. Obtained from irhat part of n jiUmt. 

III. Mliere found. 

IV. Hoiu prepared for ma rA'et. 
V. Uses. 

Ginger. 

Cin namon. Cassia . 

VI. Principal kinds ^ Cloves. 

I Pepper, Cayenne, Pimento. 
l^ Nutmeg, Mace. 

VII. Lesson on, each. 

MATTER TO BE TAUGHT. 

I- What they are. — Spices are vegetable 
sulistaiices which have a fragrant odor and a bit- 
ing ta.ste, and which are used for seasoning food. 
On account of their fragrance they are said to he 
aromatic, on account of their biting flavor pungent, 
from a. word meaning biting. 

II. Spice is obtained from what part 
of a plant. — Sometimes the spice is the root of 
the plant, — show ginger; sometimes the bark, 
cinnamon ; sometimes the flower, cloves ; some- 
times the fruit, jiepper ; sometimes the seed, nut- 
meg. 

IIIo Where Found. — They are now found 
iu the tropical parts of Asia, Afi-ica and America. 
Formerly tlie finest spices came from the group of 
islands north of Australia, and lying between 
Papua and Celebes. The soil of these islands, — 
the Moluccas, — is volcanic, the climate is warm 
and moist ; for these reasons they are especially 
adapted to the production of tlie best spices, and 
have furnished them in sucli profusion that they 
are known as the Spice Islands. 

*IV. 

* Dried, sometimes yrouiul. 



V. Uses. — Spices are used for flavoring food 
and for medicinal purposes 

VI. Most important. — Ginger, cinnamon, 
cassia, cloves, pepper, allspice, nutmeg, mace. 




Ginger Plaat 

GINGER. 

Description. — Ginger isan herb whicii grows 
to the height of from two to four feet. It has 
a thick root wliich creeps under the ground, and 
fi'om which the spice is obtained. 

Where Found. ^ — Chiefly in the East and 
West Indies. It is cultivated to some extent iu 
Africa. The best comes f I'om .Tamaica. 

I Preparation for Market. — The roots are 
usually dug when they are about a year old, just 
after the stalks of the plant have withered. They 
are washed, scalded to prevent sprouting, and 

1 then dried in the sun. Some of the roots are 
selected with more care than others, and, after 
being washed, aiv scraped. This makes them 
smooth and of a nuich tiner appearance. Some- 
times the roots are dug when the stalks ai'e onlv a 
foot or two in height. These young roots are 
very tender and are made into a delicious sweet- 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



71 



meat, which comes to us in jars, and which is called 
preserved ginger. 

Adulterations. — IMost of the ginger sold by 
grocers is ground. Root gniger is generally sold 
by druggists. Ground ginger is often mixed with 
cheaper articles, such .as ground rice, whe.at, etc. 
Then to give the mixture a pungent flavor, cayenne 
pepper and mustard are added. 

Kinds of Ginger. — Tliere are two kinds, 
coated and uncoated. The lust is so called because 
the outer coat of the root has been scraped off, as 
we have seen is sometimes done. The coated has 
a brown, wrin]<led appearance in the root, and, 
when ground, makes a powder of a yellowish- 
lirown color. The uncoated is smootli and of a 
pale nuff in color. "When ground it is yellowish- 
white. The uncoated root is often dipped in water 
containing either lime or wliiting, so as to give it 
a fine appearance. It is then said to be white- 
washed. 

How to Tell Good Ginger. — Ginger is 

aromatic and very pungent. It loses these qual- 
ities if exposed long to the air, and is then much 
less valuable. Test it by smelling and tasting. 
It is difficult to detect adulterations in ginger unless 
one understands chemistry. The root is some- 
times whitewashed, not merely to give it a fine 
appearance, but to cover up an inferior quality. 
Whitewashed ginger is known by its color, and 
also by the fact that the whiting rubs off easily on 
the fingers. (Let the children try it.) 



CINNAMON. 

Description. — Cinnamon is tiie bark of a 
tree which attains a height of from twenty to 
thirty feet, and a thickness of a foot or more. The 
trees live to a great age. Some centuries old 
produce cinnamon in abundance. The finest spice 
is obtained from young branches, or from shoots 
that spring up about the stumps of trees that have 
been cut down. 




Branch of the Cinnaiuoii Tree. 

Where Found. — In the tropical islands of 
^Vsia, and in the West Indies, but it is chiefly pro- 
duced in Ceylon, in gardens belonging to the gov- 
ernment. 

Preparation. — In Ceylon the young shoots 
are cut down twice a year. From these the bark 
is stripped in pieces about a foot in length. The 
outer and inner layers of this bark are scraped off, 
leaving a strip about the thickness of writing 
paper. These thin strips are exposed to tlie suu. 
and in drying roll up in the shape of quills. They 
are gotten ready for market by slipping the smaller 
quills inside larger ones, until rolls made up of 
several layers are formed. These rolls are tied 
up in bundles weighing many pounds, and arethea 
ready for market. 

Kinds of Cinnamon. — That from Ceylon 
is much tlie best, and is known as Ceylon cinna- 
mon. It is costly and not easily obtained, except 
at a drug store. That sold by grocers is not cin- 
namon at all, but cassia. 

CASSIA. 

Cassia is obtained from a tree something like a 
cinnamon tree, but the bark is thicker, the flavor 
harsher and more biting, and tlie odor stronger. 
Both tlie puugency and the aroma are much less 
delicate and delightful than those of cinn.amon. 
The cassia buds look a little like cloves, and are 
used liy coi'<"eetioners. 

Where Found. — Principally in Japan and ia 
China, so it is sometimes called Chinese Cinna* 
mou. 



MODERN 1METHOD8. 



Ho'W to Distinguish. — When ground, it 
is ditlicult to tell cassia from ciuuamou. Tlie 
'.mgi'oimd can be easily distinguished from stick 
finnamon by its coarseness and thickness, and also 
jecause it does not roll up in such small quills. 




Bi-ancU of Clove Tree. 

CLOVES. 

Description. — Among the most important 
spices of tlic East are cloves. They are unopened 
flower-liuds of a tree that grows to the height of 
from twentj' to thirty feet. The round top of the 
clove is formed of tlie leaves of tlie flowers still 
rolled u|i. If left upon ihc trees these would 
haveoijened. (See picture.) Cloves are thougiit 
to look like nails, so in almost all languages they 
are called nails. The Chinese call them by a name 
■which means a fragrant mul. The word clove 
comes from the Spanish word clavos, meaning 
nail. 

Where Found- — rriucipally in the Spice 
IsUukIs, «hii.-h ari' their native soil. Durino' the 
last centiuy tlicy have Ijccii cultivated in other 
islands of the Indian ( )ceau — among them Java, 
Sumatra and Zanzibar — and they liave also l)een 
introduced into the West indies; but nowhere 
else do they reach thi> same i>frfection as in the 
Spice Islands. 

Preparation for Market. — llu- eluvt-trees 
bear a great (piantity of small red Mowers, which 



are gathered just before they are quite unfolded, 
and are dried as rapidly as possible, so that the 
aroma may not be lost. They are commonly dried 
by exposure to the air, but in the shade. Some- 
times to hasten the process they are partially dried 
over wood fires. In <lryiug, the beautiful red color 
changes to the dark brown color the clove has 
when it reaches us. 



A STORY. 

t'litil a few hundred years ago the people of Europe 
suppiisi-d tlie earth was flat and nuich smaller than it is. 
They knew little of the other countries of tlie world 
except those lying about the Mediterranean Sea, those 
of northern Africa and south-western Asia; and they 
knew less al)out the gi'eat seas. All the spices and other 
tine tilings from Southern Asia, that made their way 
into Europe, had to be carried over land to the Mediter- 
ranean. This took a long time and made tlie spices 
very costly; so that cloves, that were l)ought of the 
natives of tlie Moluccas for less than half a cent a 
pound, were sold in England for more than seven dol- 
lars a pound. 

A few years after Columbus discovered America, the 
Portugese found that the}' could reach the rich island 
south of Asia by going round Africa. They found here 
a simple, happy, industrious people who were almost 
all engaged in the cultivation of their spices, especially 
of the clove. The Portugese took possession of the 
islands, kept out all other Europeans, bought all the 
elovi's raised each year, carrying them otl' to Europe — • 
•Hliieh they could do very clieaply in their ships — and 
sold them for whatever they chose to ask. As there 
was no one to compete ^vith the Portugese they conld 
liny cheap and sell dear, so of course they made a great 
deal of money. 

Naturally either nations in Europe would want to 
sh.are in such rich possessions, but the Portugese had 
everything their own way for about a century. Then 
tlie Dnteli succeeded in getting the Spice Islands into 
their liaiids and drove off the Portugese. They wished 
to raise cloves for as little cost as possilile and sell them 
for as much as possiljle. They accordingly decided to 
confine the culture to the island of Amboyna, because, 
if great <iuantities were raised, it would make the spice 
rlu'a|i, and also because it wonld be easier to keep the 
natives from slyly selling their cloves to anyone else, if 
tlu-re was one island to look after instead of many. 

To acconiplish this end the Dutch did a very cruel 
and wicked thing. Each year thev sent a liaiid of 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



V3 



soldiers and workmen to all the other Spice Islands to 
tear up every clove tree that sprung up by chance. Nor 
was that all. They forbade the natives planting a 
clove tree, and if they found out that a man had planted 
one, or had sold so much as a pound of cloves, he was 
put to death. This caused the poor people great sutler- 
ing, not only by depriving them of their only means of 
earning money, but also by depriving them of food. We 
have seen that these islands are of volcanic origin. The 
soil is light and easily washed away by the heavy rains of 
the region, unless it is protected by trees. So many 
clove trees were uprooted, that when tlie rainy season 
came on the surface soil was carried away to the sea. 
Or, if the land was flat, it was burned up in the dry 
season by the hot sun. The unhappy islanders saw 
whole stretches of fertile land becoming more and more 
sterile, until finally they could not raise food enough to 
live upon. Hundreds of them died of starvation. 
Some, to escape such a fearful death, were glad to 
become slaves in the clove plantations of Amboyna. 

Although the clove tree is no longer uprooted in these 
islands, the cultivation of this spice has never revived, 
and Amboyna is still the principal source of supply. 




Branch of Cayenne Pepper Plant. 

PEPPER. 
Description. — Pepper, as we have seen, is a 
fruit. The plant is not a tree, but a beautiful 



vine, that grows to a height of from twelve to 
twenty feet. AVhen the pepper grows wild in a 
localit}', the people cultivate it by tying the ends 
of the vines to trees about six feet apart, care 
being taken to select those which have a rough 
bark, so that the vines will cling to them. The 
underbrush is cleared away. If, instead of taking 
wild vines, other vines are set out, care is taken to 
plant trees near them, because the pepper is a 
plant that loves the shade and thrives best in it. 
When three or four years old, the vine begins to 
bear, and produces two crops annually for about 
twelve years. The fruit grows on a stem some- 
thing like a currant. 

Where Found. — In both East and West 
Indies. 

Preparation for Market. — When ripe the 
berries are red. It is necessary that they should 
be full grown, but if allowed to fully ripen, they 
lose their pungency, so just as soon as a few ber- 
ries on the vines are red the harvest begins. Some 
of the pepper-corns arc simply dried ; others are 
bruised and washed until the stems and outer cov- 
ering are removed, and then dried. 

Kinds of Pepper. — There are two kinds of 
pepper, white and black. That prepared by dry- 
ing simply, is black pepper That prepared by 
removing the pulp is of a lighter eoloi and is called 
white pepper. Wiiite pepper is more delicate than 
black, and is more costly on account of the 
greater laljor required in its preparation. 

Two other spices are called pepper that are not 
pepper at all. One is known as Cayenne pepper, 
the otlier as pimento, the Spanish word for pep- 
per. 

CAYENNE PEPPER. 
Description. — Cayenne pepper is so called 
from a town in Soutii America ; it is often called 
red pepper from its color. The plant is very 
unlike the pepper vine, but is related to the red 
pepper of our gardens ; the fruit of which grows 
in large, bell-shaped pods. There are many varie- 
ties of this plant. The one from which Cayenne 



7t 



MODERN METHODS. 



pepper is obtained has a small, long pod of a yel- 
lowish led when ripe. 

Where Found- — It is a native of South 
America, but is now cultivated in southern Europe 
and in India. 

Preparation. — The pods are allowed to 
ripen, are then dried, ground, mixed with yeast, 
and baked in small hard cakes, something like 
crackers. These cakes are ground up and furnish 
the red pepper of counnerce. Sometimes pepper 
is prepared by simply pounding the dry pods. 

Advilterations. — Cayenne loses its bright 
red color if it is long exposed to the light. To 
conceal tiiis loss of color and also to conceal adul- 
terations, such as rice and flour, poisonous mineral 
substances are sometimes mixed with it. Red lead, 
mercury and otlier harmful minerals are used for 
this purpose. It is ditlicult to obtain perfectly 
pure red pepper. Out of twenty-eight samples 
tested, twenty-four were found to be adulterated. 

PIMENTO. 

Description. — Pimento is the fruit of a tree 
sometliing like a clove-tree. The fruit looks so 
much like pepper-corns that tlie Spaniards called 
it pimento wlieii they found it in America ; a name 
it still bears. It is sometimes called allspice by 
housekeepers, because its flavor is thought to be 
like that of the spices, nutmeg, cinnamon and 
clove, mixed. 

Where Found. — In Sontli America and the 
West Indies, especially in .laniaiea. 

NUTMEG AND MACE. 
Description. — The nutmeg is the seed of a 
tree that reaches a height of about twentj'-five 
feet. The fruit when ripe is of a yellowisii color 
and resembles a roundish pear in appearance. As 
the fruit is very hard it is not eaten except when 
preserved. Wlien ripe it bursts open and exposes 
the nutmeg encased in a curious red covering called 
the aril. (4n)und, the aril forms the spice known 
as mace. Within the aril is the nutmeg enclosed 
in a shining bn.-wn shell. 



Where Found. — Originally in the Spice 
Islands, and for a long time nowhere else, because 
the Dutch would not allow nutmeg trees to be 
carried to any other part of the world for culture. 
The British got possession of these islands for a 
time, and then the trees were introduced into the 
islands of the Indian Ocean and into India. Now, 
nutmegs are also raised in South America and in 
the West Indies. 

Preparation for Market. — After the aril 
is removed, the nuts are dried for about two months 
over very slow tires. When sufliciently dried they 
rattle about freely in their shells. These are 
cracked open with a mallet, the nuts are packed 
into chests, sometimes with and sometimes without 
lime, and are then ready for market. 

The Dutch liegan the custom of rubbing the 
nuts in lime to prevent sprouting. They did not 
do this simply to prevent injury to the spice, but 
also to prevent the nutmeg trees being carried to 
any other country by means of the nutmegs. It is 
now known that exposing them to the sun for a 
short time will prevent their sprouting. Tiiose 
that are not limed are considered better than those 
that are. 

How to tell Good Nutmegs. — Wild nut- 
megs are very inferior to the cultivated but are 
sometimes sold. They are easily detected from 
the fact that they are about twice as long as the 
others. Nutmegs are fre(|uently worm-eaten ; to 
conceal this the worm-holes are filled up ; but such 
nutmegs are very light. If a grocer gives you too 
many for a pound, take care ; they may not be 
good. A really good nutmeg is hard, solid, and 
when pricked with a pin sends out upon the sur- 
face a little bit of oil. 



SUGGESTIONS. 

Have each iiicmljer of the class come to school pro- 
vided with the spices named in the lesson. 

If possible, represent witli colored crayons upon 
the black-board a j,n»?er plant, a pepper-vine and 
a cinnamon, a clove, a uiitmeir, and a pimento tree. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 




Branch and Fruit of Nutiiie§^ Tree. 

It -would he well to rcpreseut them all Ijy the same 
scale, say an inch for a foot. Then the picture 
of the ginger-plant will be four inches high, that of 
tne cinnamon tree about thirty, etc. Write the name 
of the plant over each picture. From the specimens 
brought iu, these pictures and their maps, you -will be 
able to teach the children everything nnder that headed 
" Matter." Do not attempt to teach too much iu a sin- 
gle lesson. There is material enough here for several 
lessons. Teach by questions. 

MODEL.— (First Topic— Spices.) 

Children, you may look at the things you havebrouglit 



in for this lesson. Who can tell me what we calt 
them? We want to find out just what spices are. 
Look at these pictures, what does this one represent?. — 
pointing to the pictures one after the other upon the 
board — Are spices animal or vegetable substances? 
Smell of those you have, what can yon tell me about 
their odors? (All sorts of answers will of course 
he given, such as good, nice, sweet, fragrant, 
agreeable, etc. If an unexpressive adjective is used by 
a child substitute a better one. When the children 
coTne to see that the spices have agreeable or fra- 
grant odors, give them the term aromatic. In the same 
way teach pungent. Let one child after another pnt 
the things taught together until a statement something 
like the following is given. " Spices are vegetable sub- 
stances which are aromatic and pungent, and which are 
used to flavor our food." or " Spices are aromatic and 
pungent vegetable substances, used to season food.") 

Let the children name some things which are aroma- 
tic, but not pungent, as coffee; some which are pungent 
but not aromatic, as mustard, and tell whether or not 
they are spices. 

In teaching the next topic let them discover for them- 
selves, by examining their specimens and the pictures, 
that ginger is a root, cinnamon a bark, etc. Iu f.act, 
teach everything by making them sie what is true, not 
by tellinij them. 

— Elvira Carver. 



ONION, TURNIP, CARROT. 

(A Comparison). 



Raw and rooked specimens for iUxstrations. 

I. Onion. — Call attention to the shape, the thin 
brown skin, the strong odor, and the hot, binn- 
ing taste. Cut open to show the leaf-like layers : 
show thread-like roots. Compare witli a cabbage 
or with a lily-bidb. 

II. Turnip. — In shape something like the 
onion ; thick skiu. Cut open to show solid flesh. 
Skin has ixit taste, flesh sweetish. 

III. Carrot. — Elongated shape, thin skin. 
Cut open to show the yellow and red parts. 



Sweet taste. Turnips and carrots are< roots- 
Show the little rootlets. 

IV. Comparison. — The children to be led 
to make this for themselves. 



Onion 
Ball-shape ( ?) 
Thin skin. 
Layers. 



Tnrnip Carrot. 

Ball-shape ( ?) Long. 

Thick skin. Thin skin. 

Solid Solid. 



Roots like thread. A tap root. A tap root. 
IIot,barning taste. Sweetish taste. Sweet taste. 
Strong odor. Odorless. Odorless. 



MODKHN METHODS. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE FOR GEOGRAPHICAL LESSON. 

THE CONTINENT. 



Topics Presenting a Continent as a 
Whole. 



n. 


Form. 


il. Position. 


h. 


Introduction. 


Latitluk'. 


r. 


Size. 


I.iiiiijitiule 




Greate.'^t Lensith. 


BouiKlarie 




(h-i'iitest Br.'adtli. 






Area. 





h. I'ltODrCTIOXS Ol' DlFFERKNT SUCTIONS. 

Fertile and Sterile Sections — Productions. 

c. Anijiai-.s UsKiti, TO Man. 

d. OccuPArioN.s Carried o.n in Dikkkrknt Sections, 

e. E.XPORTS AND Imports. 

f. GliE,\T Thoiioi'c.iifares. 



Topics Presenting the Parts of a Con- 
tinent. 

1. OuT.siDE AND on THE ('i)Asr. /. . 1 )ivisinns of Land : 
a. Divisions of Water. Islands. 

Oceans. Peninsnlas. 

Seas, etc. Capes. 

Isthnuises. 
.2. Inside the Coa.st, 

a. Divisions of Land, or Highlands and Low- 
lands. 
/). Divisions of Water, or Kiver System-.. 

Topics Relating to the Life Upon the 

Continent. 

a. Ci-iMAi'io. 

I Latitnde. 

I Elevation of the Lan<l. 
r^ n t «• » I Slope of the Land. 

Causes that uHect -| Nearness to the Sea, 

Prevailinir AVinds. 
Ocean Currents. 



( Natural. 
\ .\rtiticial. 



Water Communications 

Railroads. 
Important Towns. 

Aloni; these Pontes. 

Manufactnrinu; Towns. 
People, i. Poi.itkai. DnisioNsoi- the Continent. | 

Races. 

Reliirion. 

Government. 

Advance in Ci\ ilization. 

History. 

ToAvn. 



Map. 


I WE 


noR. 


Lenoth, Preadth. 




Mountains. 


15<HNDARIES, 




Plains. 


Coast. 




Kiv<Ts. 


Oceans. 




Lakes. 


Seas. 






Gulfs, etc. 






Weather. 


Ind 


-.STRIES. 


Fertile Lands, 


Hailroads, 


TiiiNOS THAT Grow. 


Vii.i 


.AGES, Cities 



Elvira Cakver. 



EMPLOYMENT FOR GEOGRAPHY CLASS. 



For a class in I'lenientary i;i'o;;rapliy tlie following- 
plan -will scnnetimes brinn peace lo llie weary teacher. 

Let tlu' teacher place a diagram on the board, as the 
following: 



No. 


Nan^e. 


Abv. 


Capital. 1 Largest City. 


1. 

3. 


-Mabama. 
Arkansas. 


Ala. 


Montgomery. Mobile, 



Have the pupils draw the same form on tlieir slates, 



them paper and li,-i\c' tlie table reproduced. The 
sched\ili' or table should then be copied into blank- 
books. 

Lastly, the table sliould be learnefl |ierfectly, so tliat 
the teacher may give out any one of the words in the 
four columns, and the pupil could give you the corre- 
sponding names. 

Examiili' : Tlie teacher propounds •■ San Francisco," 
ami the pupil answers: ■•California, Cal., Sacra- . 
mento," etc. During the time re(|nired to learn the 
tables, other slate work could )>e given. Use the same 
form, but tell the scholars to arrange in the first 



vsimi tlii-ir riihrs: in th.' lirst column, tell tlieni lo place ' column the Capitals in alphabetical order, and fill out 
thennudiers 1 t(>:'.S; in tliesecoud, llie St:iles in alpha- the other columns .accordingly. Then the table would 
betic;d order; linve the other eoluunis Idled out as commence thus : 
ijidicati'd. Coirecl the work in the cla-s ; then give ■■1. .\ugnsta. Me., Maine, I'ortland." 



MODERN METHODS. 



OUTLINE FOR PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 




HAT physical Geogriiphy is as coin- 
pared with what we ordinarily call 
Geography. 

THE EARTH. 

Of itself, 

In the solar syyteni. 

In the universe. 

EARTH'S SURFACE. 

Elevations and tlepressions, 
Geologic-ally,— how formetl. 
Effect on drainage, 
Effect on oceanic movements, 
Distribution of heat, 
Laws of rain tall. 

IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

Sun. — Planets.— number, — size, — distances, — 
niuon;-,— meteors.— comets. 

Movements. — Kinds, — axis, — orbits, — direc- 
tions,— velocities. 

IN THE UNIVERSE, 

Starry heavens, 
Fixed stars, 

Nebula';, 

Seeming and real distances. 

THE EARTH. 

Form, general and exact. 
Comparative size, 

Circles— equator,— meridians, — parallels, — climates. 
Latitude and longitude,— how reckoned, — length ota 
degree,— prime meridian. 

MAGNETISM. 

Kinds of magnets,— properties, 

Magnetic poles,- neutral line, 

Dip of the needle,— varlationsdiumal and secular, 

Magnetic meridians,— line of no variation. 

Magnetic Storms,— causes, thermo-electric currents, 

The compass. 

INTERNAL HEAT. 

Mines, 

Artesian wells, 
Hot sprmgs and geysers, 
Volcanoes, 
Eartbqakes, 

Two theories as to internal condition of the earth 
(fluidity or solidity), 

ARTESIAN WELLS. 

Why the water rises, 
Depth. 

GEYSER. 

Geyser regions,— description, — causes, — water to be 
thrown out. 

VOLCANOES. 



PRODUCTS. 



Material thrown out,— how much,- 

burie<l. 



- how far, — cities 



EARTHQUAKES. 

Centre — movements 



["waving, 
vertical, 
[rotary. 
Duration,— area,— causes,— relation to volcanoes. 



CRUST OF THE EARTH. 

Composition. 
Formation. 

Hocks — Water rocks. 
Fire rocks 
Metamorphic rocks. 
Geological ages. — Azoic, 

Silurian, 

Devonian, 

Carboniferous, 

Reptilian, 

Mammalian, 

Age of Man. 

ELEVATIONS AND DEPRESSIONS. 

Mountains.— How formed,— groups, — chains. 
Vailn/s. — How formed, — canons. 
Plateaus.— How formed,— situations, — productions. 
Plains. — Elevation, — surface, — kinds, — produc- 



tions. 
Prairies. — Llanos, 

heaths. 



selvas,— pampas,— steppes, 



ISLANDS. 

origin.-kindsj--^^-"tal 

Oceanic. — Volcanic, 

Coral. 
Continental. —SituaXioTi , 

Character of soil and rock. 



WATER. 



Fresh,- salt. 

Pkt/sical Properties,— Changes form,— expands on 
freezing,— great capacity for heat,— great solvent 
power. 



LAKES. 



Origin. — Offices. 



RIVERS. 



Sources. Lakes, 

Springs, 

Glaciers. 

Change the surface of the earth by 
Offices. — Evasion, 

Transportation, 

D«P-" SaSuas 
Rapids, 
Cataracts, 
Drain the land. 



Formation,— height, — kinds,— active,- 
Tcone, 

J lava, 



■ extinct, 



Parts -i 



crater, 

chiuaney. 



ERUPTIONS. 



Periods, 
Premonitions, 
Atmospheric warnings. 



OCEAN. 

Branches, 

Depth, 

Bed of the ocean. 

Islands, 

Waves. 

Tides, 

Currents, 

WAVES, 

Crest, 
Trough, 
Ordinary height, 



78 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Movement^ — velocity. 

Forces,— breakers,— siirfrf,— swells. 



TIDES. 

Ctnise.^ Flood ami ebD, 
Tiilal loave. — ( trigin, 

lUreotion, 

Velocity, 

Height. 

MARINE CURRENTS. 

Origin, 

Causes, 

Equatorial, — polar, — retui-n 

Offices, 

Sargossa .^eus. 

ATMOSPHERE. 



Height, 
Composition, 

Elasticity, 

Density, 

Movements. 



CLIMATE. 



WINDS. 



Causes, — currents, — calms,— trade winds,- periodic 
winds,- monsoons, — land and sea breezes, — local 

land winds. 

STORMS. 

Velocity of winds. 
Causes, 

Kinds, — cyclones, — rotary, — progressive, — whirl- 
winds,— lornadoes,—water spouts,— typhoons. 
Predictions of storms. 

MOISTURE OF THE AIR. 

Amount, 
Evaporation, 
Condensation, 
De w ,— frost ,—fog,- 
liow formed? 



clouds, — rain, — hail.— snow, — these 



CLOUDS, 

Simple.- 



Modilied l)y elevation,— soil and vegetation,— prevail- 
ing winds.— bodies of water, — ocean currents,— 
length ol day. 



Armies, 

Cumulus, 

Sf-atus. 
Covipound.— Any two ot the above combined. 
Ifeiffht.—Ho'w sustained,- velocity, — movement. 

GLACIERS. 

Formetl, — size, — motions, — moraines. — icebergs. 



DEVICES IN GEOGRAPHY. 




WO popular qiK'stions for written ex- i 
;nniii;itioiis ari', '* Xaiue the States on 
the eastern liaiik of the Mississippi 



River 



Name the States on 



the western bank of tlie Mississippi." 
is very easy for oliihlren to l)eeome con- 
fused over these questions. I found a sut;- 
iiestiou some yeais asi'o in the " St. Nicliolas," that 
proved very pU'asini;' and heljiful in teachinji' one 
of these answers. It was a map of " I'uele 
Sam." It was formed of the States on tiie west- 
ern hank of Ihe Mississippi. lie was supposed 
to }>(■ bathing his feet in tlie Gulf of jMexieo. 
Minnesota represented tlie hat : Iowa, the head ; 
Missouri and Arkansas, the body : Louisiana, tlie 
foot and leg. Being a side view of •• Tnele Sam," 
but one foot and leg was visilile. A city repre- 
sented the eye, and cities represented the liuttons 
on the coat. Uemls of the Mississiiipi formed 
the nose and mouth, and other rivers marked off 



the arm. My pupils enjoyed drawing " Uucle 
Sam," and, in tliat way, became quite familiar 
with the location of the States. 

I saw a game of cities not long ago that pleased 
me very mucii. It was like the well-known game 
of authors, only a country and three or four of 
its important cities formed a book, instead of an 
author and some of his works. On each card of 
the book was an outline of the country, witli the 
cities mentioned located upon it. Only enough 
rivers were drawn for the location of the cities ; 
the eye was not confused by details. It occurred 
to me that a jnipil could make sucii a game for 
himself, and that it would furnish excellent busy 
work for a grammar school. In almost every 
class there are some bright pupils, who learn their 
lessons much more readily than the majority of 
tlie class, and conseciuently have the temjjtatious 
to mischief that idleness affords. Possibly the 
manufacture of such a game might please the 



MODERN METHODS. 



79 



fancy of such pupils, and furnish legitimate and 
instructive occupation. I saw a device at a study 
class one evening that 1 thought would be helpful 
in a sehool-rooui in teaching jnipils the sometimes 
ditHcult lesson — atteutiou. The teacher gave the 
class a list of questions, which they copied, and 
which they were to answer at the next meeting. 
In the reading that followed, given by the teacher, 
the attentive listener found the answers to many 
of the questions. It was a taste of the game of 
hide and seek, for the listeners sought for the 
answers that were sometimes partially concealed 
in the reading. 

For a review lesson, when perhaiis more time 
can be given to the recitation than usual, the fol- 
lowing exercise may be pleasant and prolitable : 

The class is divided into several sections. One 
section is supposed to be travellers ; the others, 
people living in different places, whom the travel- 
lers visit. Those who receive must, of course, 
entertain their guests by showing them the attrac- 
tions of the cities in which they live. The 
travellers, in turn, must describe their journey. 
For instance, let the journey be from Boston to 
"Washington. Let the travellers visit friends in 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore. Those re- 
ceiving at New York will take their guests to 



Central Park, Trinity t'hiirch, to a drive on Broad- 
way, a walk on Fifth Avenue, etc. At Philadel- 
phia, Falmouth Park, the Blint, Independence 
Hall, Girard College will be among the points of 
interest. At Baltimore, the Washington Monu- 
ment and the Battle Monument, which have given 
the city the name of "• Monumental City," must 
be shown to the guests. The parts of the city 
through which the Northern soldiers passed at the 
opening of the Rebellion, will also be interesting. 
A bright and enthusiastic pniiil will liud many 
other attractions in these cities, and in Washing- 
ton, the destination of the travellers. The guests 
can mention the cities through which they have 
passed on their journey, the rivers crossed, the 
mountains seen, the railway route, and the luie of 
steamers chosen. This exercise may be conducted 
by means of essays, or liy oral recitation, as the 
teacher thinks best. A moditication of the game 
called in the Cltarttauquan., " Throwing Light," 
is pleasing for a geography lesson. I suggested 
such an exeicise for the history class. One pupil 
describes a country or city, without giving its 
name. As soon as the name is discovered l)y the 
pupils, they add facts concerning the place, also 
withholding the name. AVheu the subject is 
exhausted, the name may be given in concert. 

— EvELVs S. Foster. 



GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 



Perhaps some of the queer names iu the geo- 
graphy will seem more interesting anil be easier to 
remember if you know what they mean. 

Colorado means red or colored ; Cliimljorazo 
means chimney ; Chili, land of snow ; Chesa- 
peake, great waters ; Caj-uga, long pond ; Jerusa- 
lem, place of peace ; Santa Fe, holy faith ; Bom- 
bay, good harbor; Irawaddy, great river; Nova 
Scotia, New Scotland ; Missouri, muddy ; Medi- 
terranean, middle of the land; Minnehaha, laughing 
water ; Mississippi, great water ; Dwina, double 
river; Cork, marsh ; Arizona, Sand Hills ; Bayou, 



a creek : Azores, hawks ; Beb-el-Mandeb, gate of 
morning ; Catskill, cati' creek ; Elbe, white ; Fond 
du Lac, end of the lake ; Costa Rica, rich coast ; 
Polynesia, many islands ; Montreal, royal moun- 
tain ; Patagonia, clumsy feet ; Liberia, free ; 
Katahdin, highest place ; .Tava, rice ; Hapti, high 
laud ; Glasgow, dark ravine ; Cumberlaud, a laud 
of hollows ; Cairo, victorious ; Cape Verde, green 
cape ; Asia, the east ; Florence, flowery city ; 
Kansas, smoky [ilain ; Santa Cruz, holy cross ; 
Kennebec, long lake. 



81) 



GEOGRAPHY. 



xoTKs- or 
A TALK ABOUT OUR EARTH." 




^I^^T^^N tenchinsj; (ieograiiliy to licsiinncrs, it is 
^ ^ well to liuve ia the tiist place half a 
il<.)/,eii oral lessons, takin<; up places 
ni'ar at haml, and liriiigiii*;' before the 
class <'.fa./;/^)/*'.s of wbat is said. Don't 
.■t them waste their time learning " hy 
rt " words of -whose meaning they have 
not the slightest idea. Rather give them a few- 
practical talks, allowing them to tell what they 
know of the subject brought forward. 

The following is a lesson that I gave my class a 
short time ago : 

Tvuclier. — 'Who can tell me what (Jeograpiiy is 
about ? 

[Hands are raised, and one of the children is 
called on for her answer.] 

Liiiii^r. — (ii'oiirapliy twichcs us about the earth. 
Tctu-hi'i-. — That is right, Xow h't us look 
around us, and see what we can find. ]5ut in the 
first place, who can tell me the shapfe of the 
earth V 

Stearns. — It looks flat. 
Amy. — The earth is round. 
Teacher. — Amy is correct. Now who can tell 
rne what makes our day? 

(ic'irijc. — Tlie cartli turns round. 
Tcdclicr. — It turns on its a.\is once in twenty- 
four hours, an<l that makes our day and night. 
(Illustrate with a ball or ap|ile.) 

JSerlic. — I thouirlit that thr sun uiovrd round tin- 
earth . 
Teacher. — It does appear so. Where is the 
sun in the morning? 
Susie. — In tlu' east. 
Teacher. — And at night? 

Osrrir. — In tlie west. 
Teacher. — Does the sun move around the earth 
tlien ? 

L(}iii.<ir. — Xo, ma'ani. You toUl us one (hiy that the 
earth moved around tlie sun. 
Teacher. — I am glad you remenibcred. How 
long does it take for that journey? 



A [uizzled look sweeps over the class, so a hint 
is thrown out that it takes Sll.'ii days, about. 
Bcrta. — I think it takes a year. 

Teacher. — Just a year, and that makes our dif- 
ferent seasons, as the sun strikes our earth in 
various ways. "What seasons do we have in a 
year? 

A)iiij.— Spring, Sunnner. .Vutniun and Winter. 

The path of the earth around tlie sun should 
here be shown with crayon, as this will illustrate 
the fact better than any other way. 

Teacher. — Who can tell me wiiat an island is? 
Cora. — It is a small body of land witli water all 
around it. 
Teacher. — How many have ever seen an island? 
Every hand is raised. 
Frankif. — I saw one iu tlu- L;rove where we liad a 

picnic this summer. 
Cum. — I saw one in the river. 
Teacher. — Who can tell me what is found on 
islands ? 

Stciinis.- — Trees <;row tlirre. 
Bertii. — Flowers i;row- there. 
Ami/. — I saw an island once with a house on it. 
Teacher. — Some islands have many houses. 
Now the large bodies of land are called continents. 
What are they ? 

Liiiii.li'. — North .Vmerica and Soutli .\merica. 
Osi-itr. — .Asia ami .Africa and Europe. 

Teacher. — One more, a jilace w'here gold is 
found. 

Cciirrif . — .\ustralia. 
Teacher. — Wliat is there beside land on the 
surface cA our globe? 
Araij. — Water. 

Teacher. — Yes, and there are live great oceans. 
AVhat are they ? 

Susie. — Arctic. .Antarctic. Indian. Pacific, .Atlantic. 
Teacher. — Very good. Now is the water iu 
the ocean good to drink ? 
Oscar. — No, ma'am. 
Teacher.— ^X\ly not? 
iye.orije. — Because it is salt. 



MODERN METHODS. 



Teacher. — If we look out of the windows, what 
can we see ? 

Stearns. — Wf can sfc hills. 
Teacher. — What is a mountain? 

Amy. — A very liigh hill. 
Teacher. — Who can name any mouutaiu? 

Loniae. — Mt. Washington. 
Teacher. — Yes, that is one of tlie White Moun- 
tains in New Hampshire. Do we live in New 
Hampshire ? 

Class. — No, ma'am. 

Teacher. — Where do we live ? 

Susie. — In Massachusetts. 
Teacher. — What is the capital of Massachu- 
setts ? 

Louise. — Boston is the capital. 
Teacher. — AVho knows the capital of the ITnited 
States ? 

Louise. — It is Washington. 
Teacher. — Yes, Louise knows, because she used 
to live there. Can you tell me the names of any 
rivers ? 

Frankie, — I live near the Charles River. 

Amii. — My brother showetl me the Mississippi 

River on the map one clay. 
Louise. — We crossed the Potomac River once. 
Teacher. — Who can tell me where the rivers 
begin? 

Nobody seemed to know, so the teacher 
explained that they sometimes connnence from 



little springs up on the mountains, and that other 
little streams joined the first, until finally there was 
a river. 

A map of the United States himg on the school- 
room wall, and after the children iiad told what 
they knew about their own country, the class was 
called forward, while one of the boys took the 
pointer and pointed out on the map different 
places. When he hesitated, another took his 
place. For variety, one of the scholars dictated 
instead of the teacher. 

Some of the places pointed out were : the largest 
State in the Union; the smallest State; Jlassa- 
ehusetts ; Boston ; Washington ; Atlantic (Jcean ; 
Mississippi River ; (4ulf of Mexico ; Mexico, etc. 

After the class has recited this, a few of the 
leading questions m.ay be put on the board and 
they may write out the answers on their slates. 
While doing this work, great care should be taken 
that every question is answered by a complete sen- 
tence. This will not only be a good test on what 
has been recited orally, but will also serve as a 
Language Lesson. If possible, take your children 
to walk after school some night, and point out the 
interesting things close at hand. Influence them 
so that they will behold what Nature spreads out 
before them, and in this way their dreaded Geo- 
graphy may have a fascination for each one. 

— Cora W. Foster. 



GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE. 



The following remarks will be found useful in 
the study of geographical perspective : 

1 . The pupil should pay more attention to his 
own State than to any other. 

2. His own country should have precedence 
over all other coiuitries. 

3. Of foreign countries he will study those 
with the greatest care with which his own State 
and country are closely connected by industries, 
commerce, intellectual, political, and moral life. 



4. Next may be mentioned the present stand- 
ing of countries in the scale of civilization, — 
their position in the march of progress. 

5. Historical relations will follow ; facts of 
race, descent, emigration, and social and legal in- 
stitutions. 

(5. The place of countries in history and liter- 
ature. 

7. Other things being equal, the uear will 
claim more attention than the remote. 

— B. A. Hinsdale 



82 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NOTES OF LKSSON ON 

WIND. 




KAC'HKR. — Wluit have I in my liand? 
Pupil. — A whirl-i-gig. 
Teacher. — You can make a toj' like 
this very easily. After seliool-hour.s 
I will sliow you how to make one. 
[Cut a square sheet of paper from the 
oriiers nearly to the centre and fasten one 
side of i-aeh divided corner through tiie centre of 
the paper to a stick.] AVhat makes this toy whirl 
around ? 

Pupil. — The air. 

Ti'dcher. — ^\'llen I hold it still it does not turn 
around. 

Pupil. — It will if you hold it in the wind. 

Tearhi'r. — Is wind :ur? 

Pupil. — Wind is air in motion. 

Ti'iichpr.— I see a pictiue in my mind ; as I tell 
about it, try to form one like it in your mind. 
The branches of the trees sway and bend toward 
the east. The dust whirls along the street in 
clouds. An old laily is walking along very rapidly, 
in fact, she cannot seem to go slowly; occasionally 
she turns and walks backwards, her garments cling 
to her form, and away goes her umbrella turned 
wrong side out. Tlie hens .'i.re running in all direc- 
tions and their feathers seetii to stand up .straight. 
Bits of paper go whirling through tlie air and a 
boy is running aftrr his lial . What shall I name 
my pictiu'e. 

Pupil. — .\ windy day. 1 can see it just as you 
did. 

Tcii'-hrr. — 1 am glad to ki?iow that, for mental 
pictures are often more beautiful than oil paint- 
ings. I will now nud<e a jii'jture on the black- 
board. (Teacher sketches a rude outline of a 
house, an<l with I't'd crayon i-eproients Hames com- 
ing through the roof.) \\'hat have we here? 

Pupiil. — A house on fire. 

Teacher. — What haA'e you learned al)out hot 
air? 



Pupil. — We have learned that hot air rises. 

Teacher. — As the flames heat the air near the 
iiouse what movement will the hot air make? 

Pupil. — It will rise far above the house. 

Teacher. — What will take the i)lace of hot air? 

Pujtil. — Cool air will rush in and take its 
lilaee. 

Teacher. — You can now tell why the wind blows 
hanler when a house is on tire than at other times. 
In what other way is the air heated ? 

Pupil. — Hy the sun. 

Teacher. — Yes, the sun heats the earth and the 
earth sends back the heat into the air. If the air 
was everywhere of the same degree of heat would 
there be wind? 

Pupil. — I think not, unless it blew ui)ward to 
the sky. 

Teacher. — We find that the air is not eveiywhere 
of the same degree of heat. AYhat have you 
learned about the air on the top of high moun- 
tains? 

Pupil. — We have learned that the higher we 
ascend the cooler the air liecomes. 

Teacher. — The laud takes more he.at from the 
sun than the water does ; but cools off quicker. 
During the day which would be the cooler, the 
oceau or the laud ? 

PujM. — The ocean. 

Teacher. — Which would be cooler near evening? 

Puj)il. — The land. 

Teacher. — Why? 

Pirpiil. — Because the laud cools off quicker than 
the ocean. 

Teacher. — From which then would the warm 
air vise near evening? 

Pupil. — From the water. 

Teacher. — Would the wind blow from the water 
or toward the water near evening ? 

Pujnl. — Toward the water. 

Teacher.— 'Why'i 



modp:rn methods. 



.S3 



P<(pil. — Because the cool air must blow from 
the hiud to take the place of the warm air risiug 
from the water. 

Teacher. — What would he a good name for a 
breeze blowing from the laud. 

Pupil. — I should call it a land breeze. 

Teacher. — During the day does the wind blow 
from the ocean or toivard the ocean ? 

Pupil. — It blows from the water. 

Teacher. — Why? 

Pupil. — Because the earth is warmer than the 
ocean and the cool air must blow from the water 
to take the place of the warm air rising from the 
land. 

Teacher. — What is a good name for a breeze 
blowing from the sea ? 

Pupiil. — Sea breeze. 

Teacher. — Is wind of any use? 

Pupil. — It helps vessels along and turns 
machinery. 

Teacher. — It drives away foul odo/s and keeps 
the air pure. It also acts like a mother and takes 
the wjiite-robed vapor in its arms and carries it 
over the earth. We shall find that currents of air 
are constantly travelling to and fro. 

Pupil. — I should think they would run against 
one another. 

Teacher. — One breeze often meets another face 
to face and then they have a squabble and stir up 
a regular ^yhirhvind. 

Pupil. — I have seen a whirlwind in tlie street. 
The leaves flew round and round. 

Teacher. — You may have seen a very small whu-1- 
wind, but when a strong find meets another 
strong wind they wrestle toge iher and sometimes 
move along for miles, tearing up trees, overturn- 
ing houses and doing much damage. 

Pupil. — Is a whirlwind a cyclone? I have heard 
father tell about cyclones. 

Teacher. — AVhen a whirlwind travels in a line 
more or less curved it is called a cyclone. I will 
read you a brief account of a cyclone that swept 
through a western town not long since. (Teacher 
reads from a newspaper.) 

PupjU. — That was terrible. I have heard father 



say that in some States the people build cyclone 
cellars in whicli to hide when they see a cyclone 
coming, 

Teacher. — That is true, and precautions of that 
kind have no doubt saved many lives. Fancy a 
whirlwind on a sandy desert. 

Pupiil. — It makes the sand fly. 

Teacher. — Yes, and it takes the sand in its arms 
and forms what is called a sand spout. Here is a 
picture of one. 

Pupil. — Does that thing dance along over the 
desert ? 

Teacher.— Yes, very rapidly. Fancy a whirl- 
wind on the ocean. 

Pup)il. — Does it take ui) the water as it does the 
sand ? 

Teacher. — Yes, and what shall we call it? 

Pvpnl. — A water-spout. 

Teacher — I will draw the picture of one on the 
black-board. It seems to tie tlie sky and ocean 
togethei . 

Pupil. — What if a water-spout should strike 
a vessel ? 

Teacher. — The sailors would be likely to get 
wet, if nothing more serious happened. Some- 
times when they see one coming tliey discharge a 
gun at it, and thus cause it to burst before it reaches 
the vessel. 

You may now take your slates and copj^ what I 
write on the black-board. (Teacher writes the 
following topics :) 

Wind. 

1. Cause. 5. Wliirlwiiid. 

2. Uses. G. Cyclones. 

3. Sea Breezes. 7. Saiul-spoiits. 

4. Land Breezes. 8. Water-s])outs. 



At your seats you may write all you van al)out each of 
these topics, aud after your work has l)ei'ii corrected you 
luay copy it into your lilank-book ami illustrate your 
little story with pictures like these I hiive inaile on the 
black-board. 

The permission to illustrate their written work with 
colored crayon sketches will be hishly appreciated by 
the children, and they will soon learn not only to repro- 
duce the blackboard drawiuijjs, but also to attempt 
original illustrations. 

— Eliza H. Morton, 



84 



MODERN METHODS. 



yOTES OF LKSXO.V 0\ 

VAPOR. 




(teachf.u kxpkkimcnts hkfoke Tin; <i,ass.) 

'EACIIER. — What <lul I do just now? 

Pupil — You [louii'il water into a 

small vial aud closed its mouth with a 

cork through whicii is a bent g'lass 

tulie. You then held the vial over 

tlame of a candle. 

Ti'arh'i-. — What was the result? 

I 

Pupil. — Steam came from the lube. 

Teacher. — What was left in the vial? 

PiipiJ. — Nothing l)ut aii-. 

Teurhcr. — We will call the steam ntpor. C'au 
you give other instances of watei- turning to 
vapor? 

Pupil. — When water boils steam conies from 
the vessel. 

Teacher. — What makes tin' va)ior rise from the 
boiling water? 

Pupil. — The heat of the tire. 

Teacher. — Does vapor ever rise from the 
earth ? 

Pupil. — I think that fog is vapor, and fog rises 
from the earth. 

Teacher. — "What makes fog rise from the 
earth? 

Pupil. — I think it must be tlie heat of the sun. 

Teacher. — You think correctly. When water 
passes off in vapor we say that it ecaporatea. We 
need a word to name the process of turning into 
vapor. Can you give one ? 

Pupil. — Vaporation . 

Teacher. — Eva))orati(iu is a better word. Evap- 
oration is hastened by heat, (.'an there be vapor 
in tiie air and we not see it? 

Pupil. — 1 ilo not kncjw, but I think not. 

Teta-her. — When your mother liangs wet clothes 
on the line they soon become dry. Where does 
the water go ? 

Pupil. — I think it must evaporate. 



Teacher. — It does evaporate. Can you see the 
vapor as it rises from the clothes? 

Pupil. — Siimetimes they steam a little, but not 
often. 

Teacher. — When you write with a pen and ink 
the water in the ink soon dries, leaving the dark 
part of the Huid on the pajier. Can you see the 
vapor as it rises from the paper? 

Pupil. — 1 cannot. 

Teacher. — The sun acts like a great pump, for- 
ever drawing up water from moist bodies. Some- 
times we can see the moisture in the air, and 
sometimes we cannot. Who can explain this? 

Pupil. — Will you please tell us about it? 

Teacher. — In a lu-evious lesson you have been 
taught the effect of heat upon air. Do you re- 
member? 

I'upiK — AVe have learned that heat expands or 
swells air. 

Teacher. — That being the case, which will hold 
more moisture, warm air or cold air? 

I'lipil. — W'arm air. 

Teai:her. — Very hot ai]' dries up moisture. 
When warm moist air comes in contact with cool 
air the particles of moisture are pushed together 
so as to be seen. Did you ever .-^ee moisture from 
your breath? 

Pupil. — In a cold day I have noticed that steam 
seems to come from my mouth. 

Teia'her. — Did you ever breathe on a cool pane 
of glass ? 

Pupil. — Yes, often, in order to see it steam 
over or liecome wet. 

Teacher. — Perspiration or sweat is continually 
forcing its way through the pores of the skin. 
Can it always be seen on the face? 

Pupil. — No, very seldom. 

Teacher. — Perhaps you can tell wiiy fog is often 
seen near the sea-shore in the morning? 

Pupil. — I think that the air above the laud 



GEOGRAPHY. 



s.-> 



must be cooler than the moist air that rises from 
the water. 

Teacher. — That is true. Large bodies of water 
do not cool off as much during the night as tlie 
land. What have you learned about the Gulf 
Stream ? 

Pupil. — I have learned that it is a warm cur- 
rent of water in the ocean, Issuing from the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

Teacher. — Find Newfoundland on the map, and 
notice the ocean currents near it. 

Pupil. — The Gulf Stream is near Newfound- 
land, and cold currents from the north strike this 
stream near Newfoundland. 

Teacher. — How would that be likely to affect 
the atmosphere near the island ? 

Pupil. — I should think it might be foggy there. 
Teacher. — No other part of the world is so foggy 
as the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Find on 
the map the very warm countries of the earth. 

Pupil. — They are in the Torrid Zone. 

Teacher. — AVould you be likely to fiud much 
fog where the air is very hot aud where there are 
no large bodies of water? 



Pupil. — You told us tliat very hot air dries up 
moisture. 

Teacher. — I tiiink you can now point to some 
regions on the map where vapor can often be seen 
in tiie air. 

Pupil. — I think England must be a foggy coun- 
try, for the Gulf Stream is very near it, and the 
island is quite far north. 

Teacher. — • The City of London has such dense 
fogs that sometimes the inhabitants are obliged to 
carry lanterns in the day-time, and it is danger- 
ous to attempt to cross the streets. 

You may think about this lesson and write what 
you can about Vapor. Bring your papers to me 
at the ne.xt recitation hour, when we will have a 
nice talk about Clouds, which are only masses of 
vapor high in the air. 

When a written exercise of this kind is required, it is 
well to outline the lesson on the board with topics. 
These will help the children to remember what has been 
taught, !>.id will enable them to arrange their thoughts 
in a systematic manner in writing. 

—Eliza H. Mobton. 



NOTES OF LESSO.V OtT 

CLOUDS. 



'EACHER. — "What name have you 
learned is applied to vapor high in the 
air? 

Pupil. — We have learned that vapor 
high in the air is called a cloud. 
Teacher. — Did you notice the clouds as 
you came to scliool this noon ? 
Pupil. — I did. They were very large aud 
white. Some looked like mountains, aud one 
looked like a great alligator. 

Teacher. — The sailors call the clouds that you 
saw " balls of cotton." What have I iu my liand? 




Pupil. — You have a cotton I>all in your hand. 

Teacher. — What have I done to the cotton 
ball? 

Pupil. — You have picked it out fluffy and you 
are holding it against the blackboard. It looks 
just like the clouds I saw. 

Teacher. — I think we can draw something that 
will loolv like those clouds. 

(Teacher makes a rude sketch on the black- 
lioard.) 

Teacher. — How far from the earth did those 
clouds appear to be ? 



fit; 



MODERN METHODS. 



I think they were 



Pupil 
away. 

Teacher. — They were probably not more than 
the distance from here to Morrill's corner. How 
far is that? 

Pupil. — It is about two and one-half miles. 

Tedcher. — The liiijhcst clouds are not much 
higher than the highest mountain. Do you remem- 
ber about that? 

Pupil. — Mt. Everest is the higheSft mountain. 
It IS about five miles high. When we talked about 
mountains you told us of a man who when climb- 
ing a mountain saw a cloud far below him. 

Tem-her. — You have a good memory. People 
when sailing in balloons often float into clouds. 
Do you think that pleasant? 

Pupil, — I think it must be foggy and cold. 
Whoa we talked about air we learned that the 
higher up we go the colder it is. 

Teacher. — That answer tells me that you have 
been thinking. Now can you think why some 
clouds are higher than others ? 

Pupil. — I think it must be because some clouds 
are lighter than others for we have learned that 
the lighest objects iu the air rise the highest. 



hundred miles : a Latin word meaning rain cloud. When you see 
, clouds of this kind what do you expect? 

Pupil. — We expect it will soon rain. 

Teacher. — Sometimes clouds are arranged in 
straight bands like tiiese. (Sketching on the 
black-board. ) This cloud is called the stratus. 
You can remember that word, for the bauds are 
straight, and stratus sounds like straight. When 
we talked about mountains we learned something 
about Table mountain that was interesting ; do you 
remember ? 

Pupil.— We learned that often just before a 
storm a white cloud settles over the top of that 
mountain, and the people say that the evil one is 
spreading his table cloth. 

Teacher. — That cloud is not a stratus but it 
spreails itself quite nicely over the table. The 
curl clouds are highest of all. (Sketching on the 
black-board. ) You see they look like curls of 
white woolly hair. How high are they ? 

Pupil. — (Very triumphantly, with a confident 
tone, thinking of Mt. Everest.) They are more 
than live miles high. 

Teacher. — That is correct. When do we see 
the brighest and most beautiful clouds ? 



Teacher. — That was well said. Clouds rise in 
in the air. Do tiiey move in other directions? 

Pupil. — I have seen them chase one another 
across the sky. 

Teacher.- — What made them do that? 

Pupil. — I think the win<l nnist have blown 
them alK)ut. 

Teacher. — Yes, there are currents of air above 
the earth. Look from the window now and tell 
me what kinds of clouds you see. 

Pujiil. — I see heavy, black looking clouds. 

Teacher. — What is a good name for these 
clouds ? 

I'l/jiil. — I should call them rain clouds. 

Teacher. — They iiave another name, but the 
one you gave will do very well. 

Pupil. — Will you please tell us the other 
name ? 



Pupil. — I think at sunset the clouds are most 
beautiful. 

Teacher. — Do the clouds [lut out the light ol 
the sun? 

Pupil. — They hide it so we can't see it. 

Teacher. — Yes, but " behind the clouds the sun 
is always shining." I heard some one say the 
other day that a kind word is like a rift, or opening 
in a cloud that lets the sunshine through. Can 
you tell how that is ? 

Pupil. — I think it means that we like to hear 
a kind word just as we like to see the sunshine. 

Teacher. — Yes, the sunshine is warm and cheer- 
ing, and a kind word makes us feel hapjn' and 
cheerful. We will form a picture in our minds. 
We will imagine that the sun is setting and tiiat 
we are in a boat on the water. The sky is tinged 
with crimson and gold, and the water reflects the 



Teacher. — The other name is nim 



bus, wliich is ; brightness like a mirror. In the distance is a high 



GEOGRAPHY. 



«7 



rocky coast, so far away that we can hardly tell 
the rocks from the clouds for they look like great 
rocks in the sky. Our boat seems to be floating 
on another sky, for the water below shines like the 
sky above. Do you see all this ? 

Pupil. — I do. 

Teacher. — Tell me about it. 

Piqiil. — We are in a boat on the water. It is 
sunset and the water looks just like the sky and 
the sky is all shiny. There is a land way over 
there th.at looks just like the clouds. 

Teacher. — Keep the picture in your mind and 
repeat after me. (The teacher reads the following 
verses, the children repeating in concert.) 

" The golden sea its mirror spreads 



Beneath the golden skies. 
And but a narrow strip between 
Of land and shadow lies. 

The cloud-like rocks, tlie rock-like clouds, 

Dissolved in glory float, 
And midway of the radiant flood 

Hangs silently the boat. 

The sea is but another sky, 

The sky is sea as well, 
.\nd which is earth and which the heavens, 

The eye can scarcely tell." 

Teacher. — I will write these pretty lines on the 
board and you may copy them into your blank 
books. Read them over several times and notice 
how nicely they describe the picture we saw. 

— Eliza H. Morton. 



XOTES OF LFSSOy OX 

RAIN. 




EACHER.— What have I in my hand ? 
Pupil. — You have a sponge in your 
hand. 

Teacher. — How am I holding the 
sponge ? 
Pupil. — You are holding it very tightly. 
Teacher. — We will compare this sponge 
to a cloud. When a cold wind sti'ikes a cloud it 
compresses this sponge. We will fill the sponge 
with water and call it a cloud filled with moisture. 
My baud we will call a cold wind, which strikes 
the cloud. What is the result? 

Pupil. — The water falls from the cloud to the 
earth. 

Teacher. — The w.ater that I press from this 
sponge does not fall like rain, but if I stood on 
the top of a very high tower and pressed water 
from a very large sponge, the water would be in 
the form of rain by the time it reached the ground. 
Can you think of any other way that a vapor- 
charged cloud can become cooled? (Sketches a 



mountain on the black-board.) The wind is driv- 
ing a cloud toward this mountain. It cannot go 
through it and so it rises and tries to float over it. 
What have you learned about the air on the top of 
high mountains? 

Pupil. — AVe have learned that it grows colder 
the higher up we go. 

Teacher. — How about our cloud, when it 
reaches the top of this mountain ? 

Pupil. — I think it will lose its moisture. 

Teacher. — Yes, and the countries this side of 
the mountain will be well watered. The wind 
passes over the mountain, but leaves its moisture 
behind. If the wind blows in this direction for 
any length of time, what do you think will be the 
condition of the countries on the otiier side ? 

Pupil. — I think they will all dry up, for they 
will have no rain. 

Teacher. — Perliaps we can find some such re- 
gions on the map. We have learned abput winds 
that blow constantly in one direction. 



»8 



MODERN METHODS. 



Pupil. — The trade-winds. 

TfarJii^r. — Yes. (Pointing to the map.) The 
Andes Monntains lie direetly across tiie path of 
the trade-winds. "Wliat must be tlie effect? 

Pupil. — The moisture must fall on this side of 
tiie mountains. (Pointing to the map.) 

Ti'iicliiT. — Notice the streams that rise in the 
Andes and unite to form tiie Amazon. These are 
caused liy the copious rains. What may we ex- 
pect to liiid on the western slope of the Andes? 

PitpiL — I tiiink it must be a dry region. 

Tettdtvr. — (Pointing to the map.) On the west- 
ern side of the Andes is a long, rainless belt. 
Furtlier south in the region of the return trades 
the winds blow from tiie Pacific. What do you 
conclude about this part of tiie continent? 

Pupil. — I think it must be just the otiier way, 
the rain on this side and the dry regions on that. 
(Pointing to tiie map.) 

Teurlier. — Your conclusion is correct. The 
moisture here falls on the western slope of the 
Andes, while the [ilaiiis to the east are dry and 
parched. Notice tlie surface slructure of Central 
Asia. Do you tliink it a well watered region ? 

Pupil. — Tin' plateaus are surrounded by moun- 
tain chains and no matter from wliich direction the 
winds blow they strike the mountains, so there 
can be but little rain in Central Asia. 

Tt'iichcr. — Wiieie are tlie warm regions of tlie 
eartli from which steam is constantly rising? 

Piqiil. — I think tliey must lie at tlie equator. 

Tciirlicr. — Do you think tliere is much rain at 
the equator? 

Pupil. — We ha\-e learned tiiat hot air rises, and 
I should tliinlc when tlie hot, moist air struck the 
cold air above, it would make rain. 

Tearhcr. — ^■(mi iiave reasoned tliat out very 
nicely. There is a region near the eipiator called 
tlie Belt of Constant Rains, and on either side of 
this belt the year is divided into two seasons, wet 
and dry. During the one it rains some everyday, 
and during the other it does not rain at all. Ter- 
rific tiiunder-storms occur in tiie Torrid Zone. 

If tlie Torrid Zone contaiued no large bodies of 
water, do you think it would have much rain ? 



J'kjiH. — No, for there could be imt little moist- 
ure in the air. 

Tewher. — After a sliower, what beautiful ap- 
pearance is sometimes seen in the air? (Teacher 
sketches with colored crayons a portion of a circle 
on the board.) 

Ptq) il. — A ra i n bo w . 

Teacher. — A ray of white light is made up of 
all the colors of the rainbow. (Teacher with a 
three-cornered piece of thick glass casts tiie sun- 
light on the wall.) 

See, there they are. AVhen tlie sun shines 
through falling water the liglit is separated in the 
.same manner. 

Piijiil. — I have seen the colors of the rainbow 
througii the spray of the fountain ou the Park. 

Teacher. — Yes, and when we talked aliout 
waterfalls, something was said about a rainbow. 

Pupil. — You told us about a circular rainbow 
sometimes seen through the sjiray that rises from 
Niagara. 

Teacher. — I have a large picture here. You 
may tell me what it represents. 

Pupil. — It represents a rainstorm. 

Teacher. — What do you see in the picture? 

I'lipil. — I see heavy clouds. The hens are run- 
ning to get out of the raiu. A little boy with an 
umbrella over his head is wading in the water. 
Two women are hurrying home. Elverything looks 
wet and dismal. 

Teacher. — Of what use is raiu? 

Pupil. — It waters the ground and makes the 
plants grow. It makes springs and rivers and 
gives ns water to drink. 

Teacher. — The next time it rains, I want each 
pupil to make a note of all he sees that is interest- 
ing. Renieniber, when the rain begins, how long 
it contiimes, what kind of clouds accompany it, 
and if it is a sliower or a storm. Form a picture 
in your mind of tilings that you notice from some 
point of vision, and when your Geography class 
recites the next day after the rain, each one shall 
have the [irivilege of describing his picture. This 
will lie as good as play, for I am sure that no two 
pictures will be exactly alike. You can all be 



GEOGRAPHY. 



.Sit 



artists, and make pictures in your minds. If you home and take liis picture. Another at the door, 
ever have tlie misfjituneto lose your eyesight you lor anywhere else, only notice from some one point 
will prize the pictures that hang on " Memory's ! everything you see that seems to be affected by 
Walls " for you can see those with your eyes I the rain, 
closed. One boy can stand at the window of his —Eliza h. Morton. 



NOTES OF l.ESSOX OK 

SNOW. 



EACHER— What have I in my hand? 
Pupil. — A picture of many pretty 
stars. 

Tvdi-her. — What have I in this 
dish ? 
Pupil. — Some suow. 
Teacher. — The stars in the dish are 
broken and massed together. 

Pupil. — Is that a picture of snowflakes? 




^ ^ »« ,V 



A 4(r'y 



Teac/icr. — It is, anil tiie next time it snows 
gently if you will catch some of the Hakes on a 
piece of Ijlack velvet, you will be able to see the 
beautiful shapes, although a microscope would 
show them more perfeetlv. 

Pupil. — Have you a microscope ? 

Teacher. — I have, and sometime I will allow 
you to look at a snowflake through it. Examine 
this picture very carefully and notice wherein the 
snow stars are alike. 

Pup)il. — Each oue has six points. 

Teacher. — A perfect snowflake always has six 



l)oints or some multiple of that number. What is 
a uuiltiple of a nunilier? 

Pupil. — I learned in the arithmetic class that a 
nudtiple of a number is some number it will 
exactly divide, as 12 is a multiple of six. 

Teacher. — That was well said. You see that 
what you learn in your arithmetic class may b€ 
useful in your geography class. Every perfect 
snowflake is a collection of little crystals. When- 
ever a liquid becomes solid, crystals are formed, 
but the}' are not alwaj's regular and beautiful. 
Loaf sugar is a mass of irregular crystals. What 
have I in my hand ? 

Pupil. — It looks like rock-candy. 

Teacher. — It is. Of what is it made ? 

Pupil. — It is made of sugar. 

Teacher. — Are the crystals regular or irreg- 
ular? 

Pupil. — I think tiiey are regular. 

Teacher. — Did you ever notice anything in the 
syrup pitcher that made you think of rock= 
candy ? 

Pupil. — I have often fdund ciystals in the bot- 
tom of the pitcher that looked like rock-candy. 

Teacher. — They formed there instead of round 
a string. If you susiiend a string in very sweet 
water crystals will iu time form arounit it. After 
school I will show you how to make pretty alum 
crystals and sometime I will make some artificial 
snow. 

(Alum crystals may be formed in a week's time 
by dissolving a quarter of a pound of alum in a 



yo 



MODERN METHODS. 



cup of water aiul suspeudiug iu it a bit of wood 
wound witli yain. Artificial snow may be made 
by placing a tall vial of aquafortis near the fire 
till wai-m and dropping in filings of silver a few at 
a time and then setting the vial in a cool spot. ) 

PiqnL — What is artificial snow ? 

Teadter. — Artificial snow is snow made by man. 
What am I making here? (Sketching rapidly ou 
the black-board.) 

Pwpil. — It looks like a picture of a snowstorm. 

Tecteher. — When the temperature of the air is 
below freezing point, what must happen to the 
moisture in the air? 

Ptqnl. — It must freeze. 

Teacher. — What is frozen vapor called? 

Ptqnl. — I think frozen vapor must be snow. 

Teacher. — AVhen the storm rages fiercely and 
the wind dashes the flakes one against anotiier, 
do you think perfect snow flowers fall? 

Pupil. — No, I think they are broken by the 
wind. AVhy do yt>u call them snow flowers ? 

Teacher. — A little southern-boru maiden ou 
seeing, for the first time, a snow-storm exclaimed, 
"O mamma, manuna ! the angels are throwing 
Buch lovely white flowers from heaven ! Please 
open the window and gather me some of them ! " 
That little girl tiionght the flakes looked like 
flowers. 

Piijiil. — Some llowers are sliaped like stars. 

Teacher. — You can easily crush a snowflake 
and yet enough nf them would crush j'ou. Do 
you remember what you were told aljout avalanches 
when you stu<lied alioul, mountains? 

Piqril. — Yes, you read to us about the ava- 
lanches iu the Alps, how whole fields of snow slide 
down and cover villages and bury travellers. 

Teacher. — We have talked aljout non-conductors 
of electricity. So you know what a non-con- 
ductor is. Sut)w is a non-conductor of heat. 
The earth has mori^ or less heat which it receives 
from the sun. Now if we spread a non-conductor 
of heat over any [lart of the earth's surface, what 
will be the result? 



Pupil. — The heat must be kept iu, but does 
snow keep the earth warm? 

Teacher. — Like a soft blanket snow protects 
plants from severe frosts. 

Pupil. — Snow dou't keep travellers warm lik.^ a 
blanket. 

Teacher. — Travellers sometimes dig beds in the 
suow and keep warmer than if exposed to the 
cold blasts above, but of course if help is not soon 
received they perish. Did you ever hear of a 
class of people who live iu snow houses ? 

Pitpil. — Yes, you told us about the P^squimaux 
wlio build snow houses that look like great ovens. 

Teacher. — Wc will suppose that the snow has 
been falling very gently for two days. Can you 
form in your mind a picture of what j'ou would 
see from the window ? 

Pnjiil. — Yes. I see the trees all loaded down 
with snow. The fence is covered with it and there 
is a big drift over the wood pile. The well-curb 
looks like tiie roof of a house, and the roads are all 
blocked up with snow. 

Teacher. — Tlie picture yon have formed in your 
mind is somewhat like one tiie great poet Whittier 
saw when lie wrote the beautiful poem called 
" Snow-Bound." 

Pupil. — -Please read us the poem, will you? 

Teacher. — I have iu_)t time to read it all, I will 
tell you a little of the first part and read the 
portion that is like what 'you saw iu your mind. 
He begins by saying it is a cold day in December. 
Tiie boys are hurrying round doing the nightlj' 
chores, bringing in wood and feeding tiie cattle. 
It begins to snow, and snows all nigiit and all tlie 
next day. The second morning tliey looked from 
tlie window and this is what the poet said they 
saw : 

" Wc looked upon ;i worlil nnkiiowii, 
Oa iKithinn we could call our owu." 

Why did lie say that? 

Piijiil. — I suppose because everything looked 
so strange. 

Teacher. — Y'es. Now think of what you 
learned aliout the sky over the earth. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ill 



Pupil. — Yoti tokl us we might compare it to a 
great blue bowl, only its edges do uot really touch 
the earth, but just look so. 

Teacher. — The sky is sometimes called the 
firmament. I will now read some more. (Teacher 
repeats the two lines read before.) 

" Around the glistening wonder bent 
The blue walls of the firmamcut. 
No cloud above, no earth below. 
A universe of sky and snow! 
The old familiar sights of ours 
Took marvellous shapes ; strange domes and towers 
Rose up where sty or corn-crib stood, 
Or garden-wall, or belt of wood ; 
A smooth white mound the brush pile showed, 
A fenceless drift that once was road ; 
The bi'idle-]iost an old man sat 
With loose-flung coat and liigh cocked hat." 

Does he mean that an old man sat ou the post? 

Pupil. — I think he means that the post looked 

like an old man. 




CHINESE HOUSE. 



Teacher. — Yes, look at tins picture in my hand 
of a Chinese house. Notice the roof and listen : 



" The well-curb had a Chinese roof; 
And even tlic long sweep high aloof, 
In its silent splendor seemed to tell 
Of Pisa's leaning miracle." 

Do you know what the last three lines mean ? 

Pupil. — What is Pisa? 

Teacher. — Pisa is the name of a city in Italy in 
which is a wonderful tower that leans far over 
and yet does not fall to the ground. Here is a 
picture of the tower. (Teacher holds up a book 
containing the picture.) Do you know what a 
well-sweep is ? 

Pupil. — O yes, I have seen them in the country. 
It is a long pole on which hangs the bucket over 
the well. 

Teacher. — This one that Whittier saw in his 
mind, lieing slanting and covered with snow, made 
him think of the tower. 

Pupil. — I understand now. 

Teacher. — The poem is full of pictures, and if 
you form them iuj-otu- mind as you read, you will 
enjoy it very much, especially when you are older. 

Pupil. — I enjoy them now. 

Teacher. — I am glad to know that. I once vetitl 
of a snowstorm in the house. 

Pupil. — -How coidd that be? 

Teacher. — A pane of glass wt.s accidentally 
l)rokcn in a room niiere a large party was assem- 
liled, and a gust of wind blowing through the open- 
ing froze the vapor in the apartment and scattered 
suowflakes over the astonished guests. 

What made the vapor in tiio room? 

Pupil. — I think it was caused by their breaths. 

Teacher. — Yes, and tlie air from outside must 
have been very cold and the room very warm. 
One more wonderful thing. Did you ever hear of 
red snow? 

Pupil. — Is there such a thing.? 

Teacher In Greenland there are places where 

the snow looks like blooil. This is caused, how- 
ever, by a little plant, almost too small to be ^-isi- 
ble, growing ou the snow. Now you may go to 
the map and find Pisa, and tell me what j'ou have 
learned about it. 

(The children are also told to find places ou tbe 



MODERN METHODS. 



map where there is always much snow, places 
where there is no snow, places where there is snow 
part of the year, also (Jreenland, the Ali"i6, the 
home of the Esqiuuuuix, and Whittiers home, the 



teacher telling them enough about the poet to 

interest them in the man, and giving them this 

question to think about until the next recitation: 

" What is the ' suow-line? ' ") 

Eliza H. Morton. 



XOTES OF LESSOX O.V 



THUNDER AND LIGHTNING. 




''EACHEH. — AViial have 1 in my hand? 
I'lipil. — A glass rod and a silk hand- 
kerchief. 

TcachiT. — I rub tlie rod with the 
liandkeri-hief, and hold it near these 
bits of pai)er. What is the result? 

Pupil. — The bits of paper liy to the rod. 
What makes them do thati' 

Tcarlii'r. — Tiie rubbing or friction arouses 
electricity. 

Pupil. — What is electricity ? 
Ttiirlipr. — Klfctricity is a force that seems to 
pervade everything and yet no one knows exactly 
what it is. There are two kinds of electricity 
called positive and negative. The one rushes to 
the other when it comes near it. What do you 
think about the paper and the glass rod? 

Pupil. — I think the i)aper has one kind of 
electricity and the rod the otiier. 

Teadier. — That is true. Electricity is not 
always manifest, we usually have to make it up in 
order to see or feel it. How did I make it up in 
the rod? 

Pupil. — You rublied the rod with tlie hand- 
kerchief. Would a cotton handkerchief do as 
well ? 

Teai-hi'i-. — No, cotton carries off or conducts 
electricity away faster than silk. W'liat is a good 
name for objects that easily conduct electricity ? 
Pupil. — Why not call them condut-tors? 
Teacher. — We will do so. Metals and water 



are good conductors, while rubber, glass, silk and 
fur are non-conductors. Did you ever rub pussy's 
fur the wrong way in a cold dark room? 

Piqiil. — Yes, and the sparks flew from her fur. 

Tn(cher. — You woke up electricity tiien, so you 
could see it. The winds that sweep the mountains 
and beat against the trees produce electricity, and 
whenever vapor is condensed, electricity is 
developed. (Teacher maki-s dots on the black- 
board, also heavy chalk rubbings, and a zigzag 
line.) What have we here? 

Piqiil. — It looks like a showei with chain 

lightning. 

Tvarher. — A wise man xiamed Benjamin Frank- 
lin discovered that lightning is electricity. I want 
you to lind out sometliiug interesting about this 
num. There is a story told about him and his 
kite tliat you would like to hear. 

/>„^,//._ Will you please tell us the story? 

TiHirhcr. — I think 1 will let you ask your parents 
about it and then you can tell it to me at the next 
recitation. 1 like to hear stories and it isn't fair for 
me to tell them all. Ben.iamin Franklin suggested 
the idea of protecting buildings by means of 
lightning-rods. Can you think why lightning rods 
[u-otect liuildiugs? 

Pupil. — I suppose the lightning runs down the 
rods to the ground, but I should think it would be 
just as likely to strike tlie house. 

Tciu-hcf. You have forgotten what I told you 

about conductors and non-conductors. 

]>iipil. O yes, you told us the metals are good 



GEOGRAPHY. 



93 



conductors aud I suppose the steel rods draw aud 
carry the electricity from the clouds to the earth. 
I would not want the rods on my house to be 
broken or out of repair. 

Teacher. — They should be kept in repair. 
Does lightning always descend to the earth? 

Piqnl. — No, we often see it in the clouds above 
the earth. 

TeacJier. — Some clouds are full of positive 
electricity while otliers are full of negative. 
When one kind approaches the other what must 
happen ? 

Pupil. — The two kinds of electricity nuist rush 
together, 

Teacher. — Yes, that is the cause of lightning. 
AVhen the flash occurs it pushes aw.ay the air 
along the line of its passage, and then the 
air rushes back with a great noise to fill up the 
space. 

Pupil. — Is the great noise tluiuder? 

Teacher. — Yes, but every one in the world does 
not understand this. The German children are 
often told that thunder is (iod scolding. Some 
Indian tribes tliink tliat thunder is caused by a 
mighty bird tliat opens his wings with tlie light- 
ning flush. Do you hear it tlumder before you see 
the flasli? 

Pupil. — I don't I'emember. 

Teacher.—^ I think it would be more correct for 
you to say, "I never noticed." Tlie next shower 
we have you nuist remember to notice, for I shall 
ask you about it. How many kinds of lightning 
have you seen? 

Pupil. — 1 have seen chain lightning and sheet 
lightning. 

Teacher. — If no clouds hide the spark we have 
chain lightning. Slieet lightning is probably the 
light of the flash sliining tluough clouds. There 
is another kind of lightning seldom seen called 
ball lightning. The electricity takes the form of 
a globe of fire and moves slowly along. 

Pupil. — It must look grand. 



Teacher. — Yes, it does, and when it strikes the 
earth it bursts with a report like that of a canuon. 

Where have you learned that the most rain 
occurs ? 

Piqjil. — We have learned that the heaviest 
showers are near the equator. 

Teacher. — Where then would you expect to 
hear the most thunder and see the most lightning? 

Pupil. — I tliink the heaviest thunder storms 
must be at or near the equator. 

Teacher. — That is tlie case. Thunder and 
lightning almost always accompany the daily rain- 
fall in the Zone of Calms and frequent tempests 
occur beyond its limits. The thunder storms in 
the tropics are much more terrible than those that 
occur in the temperate regions. The thunder 
claps cause the very earth to sli.ake. I will read 
you a description of a shower in tiie Torrid zone. 
(Teacher reads an extract from a book of travels.) 

Pupil. — I would not care to live in that place. 

TecH'her. — We will now point to some places on 
the map where terrible thunder storms occur. 
(The children guided by the teacher indicate the 
regions.) There are many wonderful things to 
learn about electricity. When you have an oppor- 
tunity I advise you to visit a telegraph office, also 
a factory where electricity is generated. 

(In order for an oral lesson to accomplisli the 
best results, tlie child should have a brief summary 
of the facts taught by the lesson to study. The 
teacher gives him ideas, and [uepares his mind to 
understand the words in whicli they are clothed. 
His mind is not mature enougli to remember tlie 
words of his teacher, and his own coinmaud of 
language not adequate to correctly express the 
ideas he has received, hence after the oral instruc- 
tion he needs the help of a woU-witten text-book. 
From the printed sumiiiaiy he can form topics, aud 
from his topics write a description of the subject, 
and tlius fasten it in his memory to remain as a 
seed in after years to bear an abundant liarvest.) 

— Eliza H. JIorton. 




1 




■^^ 



*.«-^^".--,tt*6;K 



■:^. 



XOTES OF LESSON OA' 



ICE. 




KAC'HER.— AVhat have I iu my hand? 
Pupil. — A piece of ice. 
Teacher. — AVhat is ice? 
Pupil. — Ice is frozen water. 
Teacher. — Is ice heavier than 
ater ? 

Pupil. — Ice floats ou the water, if it 
ivere heavier it would siniv. 

Teacher. — Can ynu think wliy it is well that ice 
is lighter than water? 

Pupil. — If it were not it wonld spoil our fun 
skating. 

Teacher. — Fancy a river freezing over and the 
ice sinking as soon as it is formed ! 

Pupil. — After a time the river would be full of 
ice, the fish would all die and the river would 
never thaw out. 

Teacher. — That woidd be an ice river certainly. 
Did you ever liear of a real ice river? 



Pnpil. — I never did. 

Teacher. — What have we learned about the 
summits of very high mountians ? 

Pupil. — We have learned tliat their tops are 
always covered with snow. 

Teacher. — We will model a mountain from this 
clay and cover its sununit with snow. If the snow 
never melted or slid down, and more kept falling 
from the clouds, what would be the result? 

Pupil. — The mountain would grow higher and 
higher until it reached the sky. 

Teacher. — Such a thing as tliat could never 
happen, for the summit of even the highest moun- 
tain has a short summer during which the snow 
thaws a little and presses the half-frozen mass 
downward toward the valley like this. (Teacher 
illustrates by pouring a little water on the snow 
and forcing it down the side of the clay mountain.) 
During the next cold period tiie snow freezes and 

114 



GEOGRAPHY. 



95 



after a time thaws again and forms a great river 
of ice moving very slowly to tlie sea. I have some 
pictures here that will give you an idea of how a 
glacier or ice-river looks. 

Pupil. — The ice looks very rough. 
Teacher. — It generally is. One might fancy it a 
rough sea suddenly frozen. Sometimes great 
masses of rocks are ground off and swept along by 
the glacier. IMost glaciers move very slowly. 

Pupil. — If I were on one would I know that it 
moved ? 

Teacher. — I think not, as they do not generally 
move more than twelve inches a day, although 
some have a faster motion. 

Pupil. — ^ Could I jump across one? 
Teacher. — Some of them are two miles wide 
and fifteen or twenty miles long. 

Pvpil. — I did not think of their being so wide. 
Where are they found? 

Teacher. — Where you have learned tliat many 
avalanches occur? 

Pupil. — In the Alps. Are glaciers found 
there ? 

Teacher. — Yes, many of them. Some project 
into cultivated fields. Look at this picture. Here 
is a wall of ice from which trickle little streams. 
Near by is a green field. What will those little 
streams form? 

Pupil. — I think they will form a river. 
Teacher. — Yes. The Rhine and the Rhone 
both start from glaciers. Find those rivers on 
the map. 

Pupil. — Are there any glaciers in North 
America and South America? 

Teacher. — Yes, indeed. On Mounts Shasta and 
Hood are glaciers as large as those in the Al|)s. 
On the western slope of the Andes mountains in 
Chili and Terra del Fuego are many glaciers. 
You may find those places on the map. It is so 
cold in the Frigid Zone that the land does not need 
to be very high for glaciers to form. Notice my 
clay mountain with its glacier. We will call this 
dish of water the ocean. Down goes the glacier 
toward the sea, when it reaches the water great 



pieces become broken off, and flout away like this. 
(Teacher illustrates with the ice.) 

Pupil. — I think tiiose must be the icebergs that 
we saw when we took our journey along the coast. 

Teacher. — You have now become acquainted 
with the iceberg's mother. Here is a nice picture 
of the formation of icebergs. Notice how much 
of the berg is below the water. 

Pupil. — It looks as though the greater part was 
below the water. 

Teacher. — Some writers say that the part under 
water is eight times as large as the part above. 
Many icebergs come from the coast of Greenland. 
Where may we expect to find the most ice? 

Pupil. — -In the polar regions. 

Teacher. — Not only icebergs are there, l)ut also 
immense fields of ice which sometimes take a 
circular motion, and whirl round and round 
rapidl}'. Under the pressure of a storm the ice 
becomes broken and the fragments piled up in 
layers thirty or forty feet high. Icebergs smit? 
the fields of ice, and woe to the vessel that is neaf 
the scene of confusion. The noise of the grinding 
and crashing of broken ice in those regions during 
a storm is very great. 




Pupil. — I would not want to sail there. 

Teacher. — No, and yet men iinve faced those 
dangers trying to obtain knowledge of those 
regions. The name Greenland does not make us 



:n; 



MODERN METHODS. 



thiuk of ice. AVluit island lias a name that 
suggests it to our minds? 

Pupil. — Iceland. 

TeacJier. — Yes, but Iceland has a milder climate 
than Greenland. I should have named Iceland 
Fireland, because of its volcanoes. Learn what 
you can about Iceland before the next recitation. 
Let me know if you find much ice there. 

Does ice ever drop from the clouds? 

Piipi'J. — Yes, in the form of hail. 

Tearher. — I will read a short description of a 
hailstorm that occurred some years ago in the 
southern part of France. (The teacher reads from 
a book of travels.) 

Pxpil. — I did not know that hail could do as 
much damage, or that the stones were ever so very 
large. 

Teucher. — Hailstones are often very destructive, 
and masses of ice several pounds in weight have 
fallen from the sky. One more wonder. Did you 
ever hear of an ice palace ? 

PkjjU. — -Yes, I heard father telling about one 
built in Montreal not long ago. 

TtucJier. — The first ice palace of which we have 
a record was built in Russia by order of Empress 
Anna. Many poor people had no work and she 
ordered them to build her a house of blocks of 
clear ice. It was divided into rooms and supplied 
with ice furniture. It soon melted away, but it 
gave the poor people bread. Several palaces of 
the kind have been built in this country. You 
may ask your parents aljout them. Perhaps j'ou 
can find a picture of some one of them to show 
me at the nest recitation. 



Pupil. — Papa has one at home in Harper's 
Weekly. 

Teacher. — Very well, Perhaps he will allow 
j-ou to take it to school. 

I will speak of but one more thing to be learned 
from ice. Did you ever notice the formation of 
an icicle? 

Pupil. — Yes, it is formed by the water running 
down and freezing drop by drop. 

Teacher. — Icicles are often very large. If some 
of the drops of water are muddy, how will the 
icicle appear? 

Pupil. — It will look soiled and dark colored. 

Teacher. — Day bj' day you are slowly forming 
your character word by word and thought by 
thought. If your thoughts are pure and your 
words true, your character will grow lovely like 
the sparkling icicle, but if your thoughts are 
impure and your words untrue, your character will 
be like the muddy icicle, and none of the good will 
desire your company. When tempted to do wrong, 
remember the icicle. 

Each child in the class should be furnished with ai 
outline of the map of the world. They can be taught 
to make those, or they can be bought for a small sum. 
As the lessons progress, have all important facts noted 
on these maps. For this lesson have them indicate 
with blue ink several regions where glaciers are found, 
also icebergs and fields of ice. It is well to <iutline 
each lesson as it is given with topics. This will help 
the cliildrcn to recall Mliat they iiave learned, and may 
l)e used as an outline for a written exercise. 

— Eliza H. Morton. 



FRIDAY AFTERNOON QUESTIONS. 

What countries are the homes of the following people? Name an hiiportant city of each country; 



1. Mexicans? 

2. Greeks? 

3. Spaniards? 

4. Portuguese? 

5. Germans? 

G. Norwegians? 
7. Swedes? 



8. Sardinians? 

9. Japanese? 

10. Moors? 

11. Patagonians? 

12. Hindoos? 

13. Dutch? 

14. Belgians? 



15. Poles? 

16. Russians? 

17. AVelch? 

18. Scotch? 

19. Irish? 

20. French? 



21. English? 

22. Swiss? 
2.3. Sicilians? 
24. Turks? 
2.5. Italians? 
26. Danes. 



Additions to this can be made by the pupils. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NOTES OF LESSOy OX 



MAP DRAWING 



A Map of the School-Grounds.^ In the 

last lessou we begau tu learu how to make maps. 
Let us now extend our map-drawiug to places 
beyond the school-room. Suppose we take our 
tape-line and get the measurements of the school- 
grounds ; and after that is done, we shall have to 
mark the distances of things from one anotiier. 
We will appoint two pupils to hold the tape-line 
tight and even, two more to write down the meas- 
urements on their slates, and two others to make 
the map on the black-board, after we come in. . . 

And now we have the measurements on the two 
slates. The measurements are set down in feet. 
What is tiie next thing to be decided. Tlie scale. 
That is right. Let us use several scales this time. 

One of the two pupils who are to make tlie map 
on tiie black-board shall make it on a scale of four 
feet to the inch. But the other may draw the 




FLAN OF SCHOOL AND I'LAV GKOUND. 

map on a scale of, say, eight *'eet to the inch. 
The rest of the class may use their slates, and 
draw their maps on a scale of sixteen feet to the 



inch. Be sure to use your rules carefully, and 
get your maps true to the scale. And when tiiese 
maps are finished, we shall see that they are like 
tluce different photographs of the same face, in 
this way, — they are all true copies of the one real 
thing, though they are of three different sizes ; 
that is, as we say of maps, they are drawn on 
three different scales. 

Importance of the Scale. — And now you 

begin to see why it is that, in looking at any map, 
in a book or on a Avail, you must never forget to 
notice the scale which you will find marked at the 
bottom of the map. For on one map an inch may 
stand for a mile, while on another map it might 
stand for a hundred, or even a thousand miles. 
Here is a map showing a school-iiouse and its 
grounds, and the places near by. Look at the 
line which you see marked at the top, and tell me 
what its scale is. Fifty feet to the inch, you say. 
That is right. Now each of you may rule 
an inch at the foot of your map, and mark 
upon it the scale you have used. 

Which side of the Map shall be 

North ? — There is one more tiling to do 

liefore the maps are completed. You have 

made your maps just as the grounds lie. 

Now which side of your map stands for the 

north side of our sciiool grounds? Mark 

that side north. Maps are usually made 

iritit the Idji for the uorth. Now turn your 

slates, so that tlie north side shall be at the 

top. If tlie maps on the black-l)oard are 

not made with the top for the north, we 

shall h.ave to make them over again, for 

we cannot turn the black-board round. Now, 

when the top is north, which sides will be south, 

east, and west? Mark these directions upon your 

maps, and they will then be complete. 

A still larger Map. — Do you think that 



98 



MODERN METHODS. 



now we can make a map of a farm divided into 
fields? You can easily mark the house, the barus, 
the stables, the orchard, the laue up through the 
middle of tiie farm, and a piece of wood* at the 
back, with a creek ruuuiug through it. 



To THE Teacher. — If your school is in a town or 
city, and some of tlie pnpils are nnacquainted with a 
farm, let them make a m!ii> of the streets and blocks in 
the immediate vicinity of the sclioo', instead of a map 
of a farm. 



EXERCISE. 

1. Name the principal roads or streets, nearest yonr 
home, which ran east and west. 

2. Name those wliicli run nortli and soutli. 

3. What is the direction of tlie road in front of the 
school-house gate? 

4. Wliat is its width? 

5. Are there any streams near the school-house? In 
what general direction do they run? 

6. Make a map of a garden. Mark the paths, 
flowcr-lieds, trees and shrubs. Put dots to represent 
the trees and shrnbs. 

7. Draw a m.<p of two roads, f>r streets, crossing 
each other. Represent a house at one corner and two 
trees at another corner. Put in a crooked line to stand 
for a creek crossing one of the roads a little way from 
the corners. 

8. State the direction of the nearest post-offlce from 
the school. Marie the position of both the school and 
post-offlce on the black-lioard, and indicate correctly 
the directions of tlie roads joining them. 

9. What is the nearest railroad? Which way does 
St go? 

10. How many miles distant is the nearest town or 
city? Represent the direct distance by a line, using a 
scale of two miles to the inch. 

11. JIake npon the black-board a map which will 
show the school-house, the city, and the railroad, in 
tiieir proper positions, and the directions of the roads 
joining them. Use a scale of one mile to the inch. 

11. Make upon the black-board a map Avhich will 
show the school-house, the city, and the railroad, in 
their pro))er positions, and the directions of the road 
joining them. Use a scale of one mile to the inch. 

12. Explain the dirt'erence between a picture and a 
map. 

13. Which (Urection should the top of a map repre- 



sent? Wliieh the bottom? Which the right side? 
Which the left side? 

14. If a nuip lie laid upon the floor, what jtart of it 
should face the west? 

1."). If a nuip be hung on a wall, what direction does 
the upper part of the map represent? 

III. If a fly is crawling up towards the top of a 
upon a wall, is the fly travelling to the north: 



a map 



A Map of a Town. — Here we have a map 
of a village. There is oue main street going north- 
east and south-west, and another going north-west 
and south-cast. You see tliat the railroad runs 
east and west, and that the church lies to the east 
of the town. Now,' votirc the scaJe. Oue inch, 
}'0u see, stands for 200 yards. Take a narrow 
piece of paper, and mark it off in inches very 
exactly, and use it to measure the distances on 
the map. You need not measure bj' the roads, 
liut straight across, "as the bird flies." Siuce 




FI.AN OF A TILLAGE. 



one division of the paper measures 500 feet, we 
find, by applying tlie paper to the map, that the 
church is about iUO yards from the centre of the 
little town. 



To Tin; Teaciikk. — Help the pupils to make a map, 
similar to tlie al)ove, of tlie village, or of the school 
.section in wliicli tliey li\ e. But if your school be in a 
large town or a city, let tliein make a map of as many 
ol' the blocks and streets in the vicinity of the school 



GEOGRAPHY. 



99 



as j'ou tliiiik tlicy -will be able to do wt-ll. liffore 
pnteriiig- upon the work of the next section, explain 
fully to the pupils wliat a township is. 



A Map of a Township. — Most of our town- 
ships are bounded bj^ straight lines. Many of our 
roads also are quite straight, and cross each other at 
right angles. Now, if you can find out the distances 
from corner to corner of the township in whicii 
you live, and then the number of roads running 
north and south, and also of those running east 
and west, I think you can make a map of it. 
You would first decide upon a scale One 
mile to the inch would be a good scale to use. 
Applj' your scale and lay down everything ou.your 
map as accurately as you can. Draw tiie boun- 
dary roads first, then the other roads. After tlie 
roads are all drawn, mark down wliat rivers, 
creeks, lakes or ponds there may be, and the rail- 
roads, if there be any ; also mark down as many 
school-houses, churches, mills, factories, foun- 
dries, hotels, etc., as you can. Probably there 
will be some places in the township which you 
have not visited ; you may ask your friends about 
these. 

In drawing your map avo'id the crossing of lines 
where roads meet. You see that the rivers and 
creeks are marked by irregular, wavy lines. On 
your map mark villages and towns with a black 
dot (•) ; and cities with a square (Mt). 

If you wish to mark a lake or part of a lake, 
you may represent the water by fine lines ruled 
parallel to the Ijottom of the map ; or you may 
draw wavy lines round the borders. Ridges of 
hills may be shown by a series of crosses (xxxxx) , 
Mountains are generally marked with a dotted 
line. The lettering should be neatly done, and 
you sliould write the names upon a clear space as 
far as you can. 



EXERCISE. 



1. In what county ilo yon live? 

2. How many townships does it contain? 



a. Write down their names in order. 

4. In what townsliip do yon live? 

.■). Wluit railroads pass tliongh yonr connty? 

(>. Wliat are the names of the towns in yonr county? 

7. Wliich of them is the county-town? 

8. What public bnildings are there in tlnit town? 

9. Wliy is it called the count.v-town? 



THE MAP OF THE STATE. 

AYe will now have a t.alk about tiie map of the 
State in which we live, and you nnist learn how to 
obtain from it nnich knowledge of the shape of our 
State, of its natural features, aud also of its 
counties, towns, cities, railways and canals. 

To THE Tkaciiei;. — Tliis lesson (or series of lessons) 
is of great importance, and it ought not to be passed 
over quickly. Great care slionld be taken to keep the 
pupils interested in tlieir work, lest tliey become weary 
of the study of Geography Ijefore they have well begun 
it. The entire ol)ject of the lesson is to familiarize the 
pnpils with the methods by whicli Geographical ideas 
are represented on maps ; not to teach facts al)ont their 
State except incidentally. Success can be secured only 
l)y letting the pnpils worlv for themselves, and Ijy bring- 
ing into activity their faculties for discovering, com- 
paring and proving. Tiie following hints as to the. 
order to l)e pursued may be of service : — Having tested 
the pupils' knowledge of the cardinal points as repre- 
sented on the map, let them first distinguish between 
loater and land. They might be taught also to distin- 
guish between the land of our o\vn country and that 
which does not belong to us. Then lakes should be 
discovered by them; then /"fz/.s- and t/id/s; then straits; 
then rivers. Then the simpler land features should be 
discovered: islands, peiiinsidns, rapes and isthmuses. 
The rallei/s can be inferred from the river courses. 
Tlien should l)p looked for. hills and mditiitaiiis. It may 
tlien be explained what parts of the State are Imclanils. 
Then the terms head-water, rirer-hasin, tribittar;/ and 
vmter-parlinrj , should be exemplified, — in fact, as many 
as possible of all the terms referrin.g to natural features 
previously learned. Tliis nuich accomplished, the 
division of tlie State into cininties sliould be noticed; 
the pupils' own county located, and its relatinn to other 
counties observed. Then the method of marking vil- 
laijes, toivns and eities, should lie learned, the posi- 
tions of some of tlie more imi)orfant of them be located, 
and their (7 (>w/;V))(s from the school-room approximately 
ascertained. Similarly, the distances of the more 



100 



MODERN METHODS. 



important cities from one another and from the scliool- 
roora should be ascertained by the use of the scale. 
Then the marking of railwaiis and rminls should lie 
learned, and the routes of one or two of the more 
important railways traced. Finally, a lluirouylu (icnira? 
review from tlie map should be made of the whole State, 
— its boundaries, lakes, rivers and bays, water-partings, 



inland rivers, inland lakes, counties, railways and 
canals. The cardinal principles to be observed are: 
(1) That the pupils must obtain their information by 
their own searching, not by being told cverytliing; (2) 
that it is the teacher's duty to see that this searching is 
done systematically, and not in a hap-hazard sort of 
way. 



XOTE.^ OF LESSOX OX 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF A STATE. 



Outline of the State of Pennsylvania. 



1. Pennsylvania, l. 



2. Extent. 



S. Surface. 



4. Rivers. 



5. Climate. 



1. 



2. 



1. 



Map drawn of same on 
slate, giving i)rincipal 
rivers, cities and moun- 
tains. 

Definite size. 

a. Greatest length in 
miles. 

b. Gi'eatest lireadth in 
miles. 

e. Area in square miles. 

Comparative — by refer- 
ence to some other State 
or States. 

At the home of pupil — 
the local geogrrt])liy. 

General characteristics : 
as, (<i.) Level, (h.) Un- 
(hihiting, ((_•.) Mountain- 
ous. 

Mountains. Only the prin- 
cipal mountains of tlie 
State. 

I)eserii)tion of particular 
rivers. (,i.) Wliere they 
rise, direction they take, 
and into what waters 
they flow. 

Rivers of tlie i>articnlar 
locality. 

As determined by latitude. 

As modified by jiarticular 
causes — altitude, or 
proximity to the sea or 
Great Lakes. 



6. Natural Ad- 1. 
vantages. 2. 



7. Occupations. 1- 



3. 



6. 



At the home of the pupil, 

— local geography. 
At the honu' of the pupil. 
On the surface of the 
earth. 

a. Tlie soil with refer- 
ence to agriculture. 
h. Forests — nature and 

use of woods. 
c. Facilities — transpor- 
tation afforded by 
rivers and railroads. 
Within the earth. 

a. Useful minerals and 
metals. 
Agriculture. 

«. Relative importance 
among the indus- 
tries of the State. 
fc. The crops raised. 
c. Cattle, sheep and hog 
raising. 
Manufacturing. 

a. Articles manufac- 

tured. 
Mining. 

<i. Metals and minerals 
found. 

b. Mines,towliat extent 

worked. 
Lumbering. 

a. Locality of the for- 

ests. 

b. What kinds of woods. 
Commerce. 

a. Wliat is exported. 

b. What is imported. 



G?:OGRAPHY. 



101 



8. Education. 



9. Government. 



iO. Counties. 



1 1. History. 



c. Moans of transporta- 
tion. 

1. Higher institutions. 

a. Universities and Col- 
leges. 

6. Schools of Law, Med- 
icine and Theclogy. 

c. Normal Schools. 

2. Common Schools. 

a. Number of pupils at- 

tending. 

b. State Superintendent 

and Board of Edu- 
cation. 

c. Local Schoolotticers. 

1. Legislative Branches. 

a. Names of " Houses." 

b. Time of election of 

members. 

c. Sessions of the Leg- 

islature. 

2. Executive Department. 

a. Term of the Gov- 

ernor. 

b. Name of tlie iiresent 

Governor. 

3. The Judiciary. 

«. Supreme Court. 
b. Circuit Courts. 

4. County, township, or eity 

officers . 

1. County in which pupil re- 

sides. 

2. Number of counties in 

State. 

1. Early History. 

a. Colonial Period. 

b. Date of admission of 

State. 

2. Suljseqiient growth and 

present population. 



;i. Distinguished Men. 

12. Cities. l. The Capital and Metrop- 

olis. 

(I. Population. 

fi. Industries pursued. 

r.. Description of strik- 
ing objects. 

2. Other leading cities. 

a. Where situated. 

b. On what rivers, if 

any. 

I would have the pupils draw the map of the 
State on tlieir slates while at their seats, and bring 
their worlc to clas.s. I would expect the drawing 
to be neat and fairly accurate, with the principal 
cities, rivers and mouutains of the State located. 
The above outline would be enough for three 
ordinary lessons. Having placed part of the out- 
line on tlie board, I would allow the pupils to use 
all the books on the subject that they could get 
for reference. I would expect them to get the 
subject so well as to be able to write a good 
description of the State after coming to class. 
After finishing tlie outline of the State, I would 
[)nt a stencil map of the State on the board, and 
have the pupils insert the principal rivers, cities 
and mountains. This would test their imagina- 
tion as well as their knowledge of map drawing. 

Here are a few questions for review, to be used 
in connection with these lessons : 

1. Wlien and by whom was Pennsylvania founded? 
Why founded'/ 

2. Bound the State and name its capital. 

3. Name the principal rivers, tell where they ."ise, 
what direction they take, audinto what waters they flow. 

4. Name and locate the principal cities, if you can: 
state the industries of these cities. 

5. What minerals and metals are found in this State? 
e. What are the industries of the people? 

7. What and where are the following : Media, Erie, 
Blue, Altoona, West Branch. York. Conemaugh, Chest- 
nut Kidge, Alleghany, Scranton, Laurel Ridge, Mauch 
Chunk, Delaware, Pottsville. 

— A. D. BiTTNEB. 



l(l-_' 



(iEOGKAPIIY. 



HINTS ON PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. 




^ ^£^ 1^0 assist tlic pupils in ri'iiicinljcring tlii? 
■ ^7^ names aud locations of the grand 

divisions, associate ■ttitii tlie i)laces as 
they are pointed out on tiio globe and 
on the map. familiar jjcople, animals 
and productions, somewhat as follows : 
North America, tlie country in which we 
live ; South America, the home of tiie monkey, 
and the place where Brazil nuts, cocoanuts, and 
India-rubber are obtained ; Africa, the home of 
the negro, the camel, ostrich, lion, and zebra ; 
Asia, the home of the Chinese, of the elephant, 
the tiger, and the place where tea, pepper, cloves, 
and cinnamon grow : Australia, the laud of the 
Kangaroo ; Europe, the home of the English, 
Irish, German, Frencii, Italians, etc. 

In a similar manner the nanles and locations of 
countries and othci' places may be learned ; as, 
Greeulauil, the lionie of the white bear: and the 
waters around it, the home of tlii' whale, from the 
mouth of which whalebone is olitaiued : "West 
Indies, the place whence we obtain oranges. 



bananas, etc. ; Spain, the country where cork and 
raisins are produced. 

The most important groups of islands, two or 
three of tlie largest rivers and prominent ranges 
of mountains, and a few of the largest cities of 
the world may be included in these lessons ; also 
the cold and warm countries may be pointed out: 
the hriiuKhiries ituft (^upitdlx of ty/nntn't's ahoidd not 
hi; tuiiijht. 

Care slioidd be taken that the pupils do not 
olitain the false imi)ression that, to travel from a 
l)lace re|n-esented at or near the bottom of a map, 
toward a place rei)resented at or near the top of 
the map, one must ;/o cyi. In leading the pupils 
to avoid this connnon error, point out the course of 
the St. Lawrence River, :ind cause them to nn- 
derstan<l that its waters rtow itijirn toward tlie 
northeast, and not iipicaril. 

The relative direction and location of places 
may be easily illustrated by simple dots on the 
black-lx^ard and on slates. 

-S. 



STATE NiCKNAIVIES. 



Taking the States in rdphabetical older, their 
nickiiarees, as far as we can ascertain at present, 
are .as follows : Ahibama, Lizard State ; Arkan- 
sas, Toothpick: C:difornia, (iolden State: Col- 
orado, Eover : Connecticut, Wooden Nutmeg: 
Delaware, :\lnskrat, otherwise the Blue Hen's 
Chicken: Florida, the Leaver State; Illinois, 
Sucker ; Indiana, Iloosier : Iowa, Ilawkeye : 
Kansas, the. Jay-Hawker: EiMitucky, Corn- 
Cr.acker ; Louisiana, Creole: Maine, Fox, other- 
otherwise Lumber: jNIaryland. (iray \'ampire : 
INIichigan, Wolverin ; Minnesota, (iopher; Mis- 



sissippi, Tadi)ole : Missouri, Puke : Massachu- 
setts, Bay State : Nebraska, Big Eaters ; Nevada, 
Stage Hen: New Hampshire, Old Granite: New 
.lersej', I>lue, sometimes Clam Catcher : New York, 
Knickerbocker, or Empire ; North Carolina, Old 
Tar ; Ohio, Buckeye : Oregon, AVhite Foot, or 
Hard Case ; I'ennsylvania, liroadbrim : Khode 
Island, (inn Hint; South Carolina, Palmetto, or 
Weasel : Tennessee, AVhelp : T«xas, Beef-Head ; 
A'ermont, Green Mountain ; Virginia, Pitch ; 
Wisconsin, Badger. 



INFORMATION LESSONS. 



103 



EXERCISE IN DIRECTION. 

1. Name the direction of your own home from the 
school. 

2. Name the direction of the nearest church from 
the school. 

3. If you were to wallc from the nearest post-office 
to the school, name the directicin and the distance of 
your walk. 

4. What is the name of the nearest river or creek? 

5. Give its direction and distance from the school. 

6. In what general direction does the water run? 

7. Where is the nearest town or city? In what 
direction is it from your house? 

8. Mention in proper order the different directions 
in which you have to walk in returning home from 
school by the streets or roads. 

9. How many yards wide is the nearest road? 

10. How many feet wide is this room? 

11. How long is it? 

12. How many windows are there on the south side 
of the school-room? How many feet wide is each 
window? 

13. What is the length of the play-ground? 

14. Name the directions of the lines which might he 
drawn between opposite corners of the school-room? 

15. If the moon is rising just as the sun is setting, 
describe the direction of a straight line joining them. 

16. What is the direction of a railroad which crosses 
at right angles a river running S. W.? 

17. A ship was sailing south and was struck s(|uarely 
on the left side by a steamer and sunk ; in what direc- 
tion was the steamer going? 



QUESTIONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. Mention three railroad lines and one water line 
which connect Chicago with the .\tlantic seaboard. 

2. Name fiv« important products of manufacture in 
the United States, together with the name and location 
of the place in which each is manufactured. 

3. What four important minerals are obtained in 
large quantities in New York and Pennsylvania? 

4. What large region of the United States is particu- 
larly adapted to agriculture? Name two important 
products of the northern and three of the southern part 
of this region. 

5. Name and locate cities connected l;y one of the 
submarine cables. 

6. In making the journey from San Francisco to 
New York by a direct railroad route, name the large 
cities through which you would i>ass. 

7. Describe the most direct water route from New 
York to Bombay. 



I. Canals, kinds of 



CANALS. 
BLACKBOARD PLAN. 

barge. 



\ ship. 



II Use of ' ''^'"Ss canals cheapen transport, 
\ ship canals shorten distances. 

III. How canals are made, or construction of. 



a. Difficulties in the way 



b. Construction of canals 
in low countries. 



c. Construction of canals 
which cross elevations 



1. Unevenness of sur- 

face. 

2. Destructive rivers. 

j 3. Too great or too 
I small a supply of 

[ water. 

f Form of the channel 
facing, puddling, 
aqueducts. 

f reser- 
I voirs, 
I pump- 
Supply regu- I iug en- 
lated by j gines, 
I s i d e 
I c h an- 
[ nels. 

Rock-cuttings. 



Locks 



f how made, 



\ how used. 

IV. Some of the most famous canals of the world, 
f Those of China. 



Barge canals 



t Those of the United States. 



b. Ship. 



C Description. 
Suez< Construction. 
( Advantage of. 
f Description. 
I Construction. 
Panama -| Why more different than 
I tlie Suez. 
[ .\dvantage of. 



A SCHOOL LOG BOOK 

The teacher may add Interest to the school for a 
time, and give dift'erent pupils some real work in com- 
position, by securing a suital>le l)lank book and asking 
the school to select each week a secretary to keep in 
tills book the log or diary of events for that week. Let 
each day's events be noted carefully. Enough ludicrous 
Incidents occur in any school to render the Log Book 
spicy. Arrange a little badge for the secretary, to add 
a little dignity to the office. Elect secretary by ballot 
according to regular usage. 

— Moderator 



DEC 






ieo5 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^ 
llHUlli'll liJIIIlllilllU'llll III 

021 772 159 3 




